<p>Dunstable Downs are part of the Chiltern Hills, in southern Bedfordshire in England. They are a chalk escarpment forming the north-eastern reaches of the Chilterns. At 797 ft , Dunstable Downs are the highest point of the county of Bedfordshire.</p><br>
<p>Because of its elevation, Dunstable Downs hosted a station in the shutter telegraph chain which connected the Admiralty in London to its naval ships in the port of Great Yarmouth during the years 1808 to 1814.</p><br>
<p>Whipsnade Zoo has cut an enormous lion shape into the chalk into the side of one of the hills. The lion can be seen from the B489 (Aylesbury to Dunstable road).</p><br>
<p>The downs are used by gliders, kite fliers, hang gliders and paragliders in the area because of their height. The London Gliding Club is based at the foot of the downs.</p><br>
<p>Much of the downs is managed by the National Trust as part of the Dunstable Downs, Countryside Centre & Whipsnade Estate property.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Central Bedfordshire Council and the National Trust commissioned Architype architects to build a visitor centre known as the Chilterns Gateway Centre, on the very top of Dunstable Downs. The summit is right next to the B4541 road that crosses the hill, and so an ascent of the hill requires nothing more than getting out of a car at the highest point and walking across to the trig point.</p><br>
<p>For those who wish to climb the hill from the base, it is possible to do a circular walk from the village of Whipsnade by following the Icknield Way Path and Chiltern Way, both of which are marked on Ordnance Survey maps. This circuit can be extended to take in the northern top of Five Knolls. The hill can also be ascended from Dunstable to the north.</p><br>
<p>The Icknield Way Trail, a horse rider and off-road cycle route, has been established following a similar route to the Icknield Way Path which passes over the Dunstable Downs.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>The downs are home to a wide variety of wildlife including many rare wild flowers, such as the bee orchid, and butterfly species, like the marbled white and the chalkhill blue.</p><br>
<p>Areas of the west-facing slope were notified in 1987 under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) called Dunstable and Whipsnade Downs. Blows Down is a continuation of the Dunstable Downs escarpment on the eastern side of Dunstable. It is also an SSSI and most of it is managed by the Wildlife Trust for Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire (as Blows Downs).</p><br>
<p>Trakošćan Castle  is a castle located in northern Croatia  that dates back to the 13th century .</p><br>
<p>It is open to visitors, but in need of repairs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Trakošćan was built in the 13th century within Croatia&#39;s northwestern fortification system, as a rather small observation fortress for monitoring the road from Ptuj to Bednja Valley.</p><br>
<p>According to a legend, Trakošćan was named after another fortification (arx Thacorum) that was alleged to have stood in the same spot back in antiquity. Another source claims that it was named after the knights of Drachenstein who were in control of the region in early Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>The toponym was first mentioned in written records in 1334. It is not known who its owners were in the first years of its existence. As of the end of the 14th century, it was owned by the Counts of Celje, who were in charge of the entire Zagorje County. The family soon became extinct, and Trakošćan shared the fate of their other burgs and estates that were divided and kept changing owners. In these divisions, Trakošćan was, as a whole, first owned by an army leader by the name of Jan Vitovac, then by Ivaniš Korvin, who gave it to his deputy warden Ivan Gyulay. The family kept the castle throughout three generations, and became extinct in 1566, after which the ownership was taken over by the state.</p><br>
<p>King Maximilian gave the estate to Juraj Drašković (1525–1587) for services rendered, first personally, and then as family heritage. This was how, in 1584, the Drašković family finally came into possession of Trakošćan.</p><br>
<p>In the second half of the 18th century, when the building of manors was flourishing in Hrvatsko Zagorje, Trakošćan was abandoned. Neglected, it fell quickly into dilapidation. It was only towards the middle of the 19th century that the family became interested once again in its estate, in the Romanticist spirit of return to nature and family traditions. In this spirit, the deputy marshal Juraj V. Drašković turned the castle into a residential manor-house, while the surrounding park was turned into Romanticist pleasure grounds. The generations that followed were staying at the castle from time to time all the way until 1944 when they were forced to emigrate to Austria. Soon after that, the castle became nationalized.</p><br>
<p>The Museum with collections on permanent display was established in 1953. The castle is today owned by the Republic of Croatia.</p><br>
<p>The castle itself reveals different phases of building. For several centuries, it used to be a fortification, so that the reconstructions undertaken during that period were functional rather than aesthetic. The facilitys essential core is a Romanesque fortification consisting of a housing unit, a small fortified yard, and a massive high tower. The fortifications good location and its observation tower made it safe and easy to defend.</p><br>
<p>Rapid development of firearms and increasingly threatening Turkish attacks made additional construction and further fortifying urgently necessary. The Drašković family&#39;s second generation, Ivan II and Petar, added the western tower, which may be seen from the coat-of-arms and the accompanying inscription.</p><br>
<p>On the Great Genealogical Tree, the oldest visual presentation from 1668, the facility had three floors, and its basic dimensions could already be discerned. Over the next period, several defense facilities were added around it. At the time, it also had the highest number of inhabitants, as may be seen from the Small Genealogical Tree dating back to 1755. It was in this same century that the outbuildings were erected at the foothills of Trakošćan, and a stone bridge built over the river Bednja.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century Trakošćan acquired its present appearance. In the 1840–62 period, during one among the first restoration undertakings in the country, the castle was reconstructed in Neo-Gothic style. This not only altered its exterior, but also finally brought to an end its five centuries long fortification purpose. The reconstruction also included the appearance of Romanticist pleasure grounds by Juraj V. Drašković, after the model of English parks. When the dam was built, the valley turned into a large lake. The uniqueness of style characterizing the facility equally includes the interior and its surrounding landscape. Count Drašković sold Klenovnik Castle, the largest castle in Croatia, then also held by the Draskovich Family in order to fund the restorations.</p><br>
<p>After the reconstruction, the castle was still inhabited by several generations of the Drašković family that did some additional constructions and adaptations. It was at the time that the northern tower appeared over the entrance, a large shingle cap added to the top of the tower (removed in 1961), and a southwestern vaulted terrace added.</p><br>
<p>The end of World War II found Trakošćan in a neglected and dilapidated condition, which is why protective architectural and interior decoration works were immediately undertaken. Over the past few years, the castle has once again been affected by decay.</p><br>
<p>The Taygetus, Taugetus, Taygetos or Taÿgetus  is a mountain range in the Peloponnese peninsula in Southern Greece. The highest mountain of the range is Mount Taygetus, also known as the "Profitis Ilias", or "Prophet Elias". The name is one of the oldest recorded in Europe, appearing in the Odyssey. In classical mythology, it was associated with the nymph Taygete. During Byzantine times and up until the 19th century, the mountain was also known as Pentadaktylos .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Physical</h3><br>
<p>The Taygetus Massif is about 100 km long, extending from the center of the Peloponnese to Cape Matapan, its southernmost extremity. It contains the tallest mountain in the Peloponnese, the Profitis Ilias summit, reaching 2,404 m; this is probably the classical Mount Taléton mentioned by Pausanias. The summit is an ultra prominent peak. It is prominent above the Isthmus of Corinth, which separating the Peloponnese from mainland Greece, rises only to approximately 60 m. Numerous creeks wash down from the mountains and the Evrotas river has some of its headwaters in the northern part of the range. The western side of the massif houses the headwaters of the Viros gorge, which carries winter snowmelt down the mountain, emptying into the Messenian Gulf in the town of Kardamili.</p><br>
<h3>Political</h3><br>
<p>Taygetus overlooks the cities of Sparta and Kalamata, whose skyline it dominates. The mountain range lies within the prefectures of Arcadia, Laconia and Messenia. Taygetus is crossed by Greek National Road 82, which links Kalamata to Sparta and separates Northern Taygetus from the Central Range. The Rindomo Gorge separates the Central Range from Southern Taygetos. The section of Taygetus that forms the backbone of the Mani Peninsula is also known as Saggias, and is often not considered part of Taygetus. The central part of the mountain range is commonly called "Skoteini Plevra", which means "the dark side" because the villages located there do not receive as much sunshine in the early morning and the late afternoon hours.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains of southern Europe that fringe the Mediterranean Sea and run generally in an east-west direction are of the folded type generated by collision of the northward-moving African Plate with the Eurasian Plate. Where the northern edge of the African Plate is being subducted in an irregular line a second orogeny occurs that is not entirely understood. The mountains of Italy and Greece are a combination of Folded Mountains and Fault-block mountains running in a northwest-southeast direction.</p><br>
<p>The Hellenic Subduction carries the leading edge of the African Plate under the Aegean Sea Plate at the Hellenic Trench. It follows an arc around the outer edge of the Peloponnese and Crete. The subduction on the west is to the northeast, on the east to the northwest, and north in the center. The average direction is N 21° E. In the islands and southern Greece a fault-block mountain orogeny prevails due to a double set of crustal movements. On the one hand the Aegean Sea Plate is being raised by the subduction. On the other hand, north-south extensional movements, yet unexplained, are pulling the plate apart, creating normal extensional faults and generating a parallel sequence of horsts and grabens, or rift valleys, running in a north-south direction.</p><br>
<p>Mount Taygetus is a limestone horst bordering the Eurotas Rift Valley. Below its eastern face is the Sparta fault, a normal fault striking perpendicular to the direction of extension. Footwall scarps are visible on the eastern side of Taygetus at the base of its spurs. They result from sudden slippages of the hanging wall in the direction of the dip, causing earthquakes. Single earthquakes result in 1–12 m of scarp. The Sparta fault is zig-zag in strike, varying between N 170° E and N 140° E. The maximum slippage has been 10–12 m in three increments. The earthquake of 464 BC, which levelled Sparta, resulted from a slippage of 3–4 m over a length of 20 km of the fault. The slip rate has been about 1 mm per year suggesting an average interval between earthquakes of 3000 years.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The slopes of Taygetus are heavily forested, primarily with Greek fir (Abies cephallonica) and black pine (Pinus nigra). Devastating fires in 2005 and 2007 consumed much of the forests on the central west slopes, and only about half remain.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The slopes of Taygetus have been inhabited since at least Mycenean times. The site of Arkina, near the village of Arna, contains three beehive tombs and is still unexplored. Taygetus was important as one of Sparta&#39;s natural defenses. The Spartans threw criminals and "unfit" (weak, sickly, deformed, or mentally retarded) infants into a chasm of Taygetus known as Ceadas or Caeadas (Καιάδας). In antiquity, Spartan newborns were abandoned there if deemed unfit after examination for vitality. Recent evidence, found by the University of Athens, discovered remains of adult individuals which appeared to confirm that Ceadas was mainly a place of punishment for criminals, traitors and captives. During the era of barbarian invasions, Taygetus served as a shelter for the native population. Many of the villages in its slopes date from this period. In Medieval times, the citadel and monastery of Mystras was built on the steep slopes, and became a center of Byzantine civilizations and served as the capital of the Despotate of the Morea. Mystras remains occupied by a tiny religious community. The buildings are remarkably well-preserved and a major tourist attraction in the region. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>The peak known as Taleton, above Bryseae, was dedicated to Helios, the Sun, to whom horses were sacrificed. Taleton was also dedicated to Zeus. Today, the mountain is closely associated with the holy Prophet Elias, and every year on the 20th of July (the Greek Orthodox name day for the Prophet Elias), the small chapel at the peak holds a large festival, including a massive bonfire in commemoration of the Prophet Elias (note: a Greek-style transliteration of Eliyah, אליה the prophet), as he is believed to have ascended up into heaven in a chariot of fire. The bonfire can be seen from anywhere with clear view of the summit, and it is for this reason that the town of Kardamyli is a local gathering point for those who wish to view the fire without having to climb the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is a popular hiking destination and is part of the European walking route E4. The view from the top includes most of the Evrotas valley and the Parnon range to the east, while the view towards the west includes Kalamata and the eastern half of Messenia. Most of the southwestern part of Arcadia can also be seen from the summit.</p><br>
<p>Blacklick Creek is a tributary of the Conemaugh River, approximately 30 mi  long, in western Pennsylvania in the United States.</p><br>
<p>It rises in two forks in western Cambria County, on the western side of the Allegheny Mountains. The North Branch, approximately 12 mi (19 km) long, rises north of Colver and flows west, then southwest. The South Branch rises near Revloc and flows west. The branches meet at Rexis, near the boundary between Cambria and Indiana counties. The main branch flows west, receiving Two Lick Creek near Josephine, approximately 10 mi (16 km) SSW of Indiana, then WSW to join the Conemaugh approximately 3 mi (5 km) WNW of Blairsville.</p><br>
<p>The name, which is also the name of the township that contains most of the northern branch and part of the southern branch, probably refers to the fact that the stream (or "lick") often passes over outcroppings of coal ("black" minerals) in its bed and its banks.</p><br>
<p>High Point, at High Point State Park in Montague, Sussex County, New Jersey, in the Skylands Region, is the highest elevation in the state at 1,803 feet . It is southeast of Port Jervis, New York. High Point is the highest peak of the Kittatinny Mountains. Three states – New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania – can be seen from the top.</p><br>
<p>At the peak is the High Point Monument, a 220-foot (67 m) obelisk, built in 1930 as a war memorial.</p><br>
<h2>High Point State Park</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is in the 14,193 acre (57 km²) High Point State Park. Route 23 skirts the park and carries visitors from the New Jersey suburbs and from points in New York State. The park is administered by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry.</p><br>
<p>Entrance fees are charged from Memorial Day weekend to Labor Day.</p><br>
<p>The land for High Point State Park, donated by Colonel Anthony R. and Susie Dryden Kuser of Bernardsville, New Jersey, was dedicated as a park in 1923. The pleasant landscaping was designed by the Olmsted Brothers of Boston, a prominent landscape architectural firm run by the sons of Central Park designer Frederick Law Olmsted.</p><br>
<p>To the south the Appalachian Trail follows a rocky ridge which offers many scenic views of the valleys and mountains surrounding the area. To the north, the trail drops off the ridge through hemlock gorges into former agricultural fields with a view of the surrounding countryside and the High Point Monument in the distance.</p><br>
<p>During the winter, portions of the parks trails are used for cross-country skiing.</p><br>
<h2>War veterans monument</h2><br>
<p>The Monument on High Point was built by Kuser to honor war veterans. Master mason Michael Maddaluna began construction of the 220 foot (67 m) tower &ndash; which has a base which is 34 feet square &ndash; in 1928 and completed it in 1930. The outside is made of New Hampshire granite and also Shawangunk quartz. There are four small windows through which observers have a view of the ridges of the Pocono Mountains toward the west, the Catskill Mountains to the north and the Wallkill River Valley in the southeast. The Monument is an obelisk monument similar to other war monuments, such as the one on Bunker Hill in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>Plans were made to close the park as of July 1, 2008 under Gov. Jon Corzine&#39;s budget plan for 2009. Veterans groups, who have held an annual memorial at the site, expressed their opposition to the proposal, which was ultimately removed from the final budget.</p><br>
<h2>Summit panorama</h2><br>
<p>Peristeri  is a suburban municipality in the northwestern part of the Athens agglomeration, Greece. With 139,981 inhabitants , it is the seventh-largest municipality of Greece by population.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Peristeri is located about 4 km northwest of the centre of Athens. It lies between the Egaleo Mountain in the northwest and the Cephissus river in the southeast. The municipality has an area of 10.50 km&sup2;. Its built-up area is continuous with that of Athens and the neighbouring suburbs Aigaleo, Chaidari, Petroupoli, Ilion and Agioi Anargyroi.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>Motorway 1 (Athens-Thessaloniki) passes through the southeastern part of the municipality. Athinon Avenue (Greek National Road 8 Athens-Korinthos-Patras) passes through the southwestern part. Peristeri is served by three Athens metro stations on Line 2: Anthoupoli, Peristeri and Agios Antonios. The Kifissos Bus Terminal where long-distance buses from Peloponese, Epirus, Macedonia, Ionian Islands and Thrace arrive, is standing in the east border of Peristeri near Sepolia.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The most important sport clubs based in Peristeri are Atromitos with presence in Super League Greece and Peristeri BC with earlier long-time presence in A1 Ethniki basketball.</p><br>
<h3>Peristeri Arena</h3><br>
<p>The Peristeri Arena (or Andreas Papandreou Arena) is an indoor basketball sporting arena. The seating capacity of the arena is 4,000 people. The arena is owned by the municipality of Peristeri. The arena is currently home to the Greek professional basketball team Peristeri Athens of the Greek A2 League.</p><br>
<p>The hall was opened in the year 1989. The arena is named after the late Andreas Papandreou, who was the former prime minister of Greece. The arena is an older, smaller version of the Larissa Neapolis Arena and the Dimitris Tofalos Arena, which were based on Peristeri Arena, but built 6 years later and with a larger seating capacity.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Cathedral</p><br>
<p>Peristeri Arena</p><br>
<p>Peristeri Stadium</p><br>
<p>Town Hall</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Peristeri has one outdoor cinema and five theatres.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Angela Dimitriou, singer</p><br>
<p>Evangelos Koronios, professional basketball player and coach</p><br>
<p>Giannis Poulopoulos, singer-songwriter</p><br>
<p>Grigoris Bithikotsis (1922–2005), singer and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Nikoleta Kyriakopoulou (born 1986), Pole vault athlete</p><br>
<p>Vangelis Ploios, actor</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Peristeri is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Iaşi, Romania</p><br>
<p>Rousse, Bulgaria</p><br>
<p>The Lütschine is a river in the Bernese Oberland region of Switzerland. The Lütschine proper runs from Zweilütschinen, where its two tribututaries join, to Lake Brienz at Bönigen. The Schwarze Lütschine, or Black Lütschine, flows from Grindelwald to Zweilütschinen. The Weisse Lütschine, or White Lütschine, flows from the Lauterbrunnen Valley to Zweilütschinen. The common stretch of the river has a length of 8.6 km, whilst the Schwarze Lütschine is 12.3 km long and the Weisse Lütschine is 13.1 km long.</p><br>
<p>A story passed on by word of mouth showing friendly banter between villagers that lived on the two rivers is that the people on the Weisse Lütschine said the others "were so dirty it turned the river black" and the villagers on the Schwarze Lütschine claimed the others "never even washed so the other tributary remained perfectly white".</p><br>
<p>A modern oberserver standing at Zweilütschinen in winter might note that during the day, the west facing Schwarzer Lütschine valley is dark, shaded and cold, whereas the south facing Weisser Lütschine valley is sunny and light.</p><br>
<p>The Schilthorn  is a summit in Europe, in the Bernese Alps of Switzerland. It overlooks the valley of Lauterbrunnen in the Bernese Oberland, and is the highest mountain in the range lying north of the Sefinenfurgge Pass. The Schilthorn lies above the village of Mürren, from where a cable car leads to its summit.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the summit is within the municipality of Lauterbrunnen, although the western slopes are within the municipality of Reichenbach im Kandertal. Both municipalities are in the canton of Bern.</p><br>
<p>The summit has a panoramic view which spans from the Titlis, Jungfrau, Mönch, Eiger, over the Bernese Alps and the Jura mountains up to the Vosges Mountains and the Black Forest. Mont Blanc is also just visible.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>To get to the Schilthorn from the valley floor, a series of cable cars must be taken. The cable cars begin in Stechelberg leaving to Gimmelwald and then onto Mürren. From Mürren another cable car is taken to Birg, which is the final change before the Schilthorn. This cable airway is the longest and was the most technically challenging airway to be built. The other way up is to take the cable car from Lauterbrunnen to Grütschalp and a train to Mürren, from where the cable car must be taken. Between Birg and the summit, the cable car passes over Grauseeli, a small lake.</p><br>
<p>It is also possible to hike to the peak, along the myriad of small, but well-marked paths to the top. The hike to the top takes roughly five hours from Gimmelwald for a fit walker.</p><br>
<h2>Piz Gloria</h2><br>
<p>The panoramic revolving restaurant at the summit, Piz Gloria, was featured in the 1969 James Bond movie On Her Majesty&#39;s Secret Service. A black ski run featured in the film starts at the summit and leads down to the Engetal below Birg. The restaurant revolves a full 360 degrees in 55 minutes, slightly faster than the minute hand of a clock. The view includes Titlis, along Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau to Mont Blanc and into the Black Forest.</p><br>
<p>After considering a number of locations, the stalled construction of the sports bar atop the Schilthorn was chosen when the film&#39;s producer financed the completion of the famous revolving platform for the right to use the facility for his next film, the first and only Bond film starring George Lazenby.</p><br>
<p>A number of scenes in the film were photographed by cameraman John Jordan hanging below a speeding helicopter. Jordan had previously lost a foot to a helicopter rotor while filming the previous Bond movie You Only Live Twice. Within a year and fitted with a prosthetic limb, Jordan lost his footing and fell 600 m to his death when filming similar aerial imagery used in the film Catch-22.</p><br>
<h2>Inferno races</h2><br>
<p>During the winter the Schilthorn is the traditional start for the world longest downhill ski race, the "Inferno," which started in 1928. It is the largest amateur ski race in the world.</p><br>
<p>During the summer the Inferno Triathlon finishes at the summit after a run up from the Lauterbrunnen valley.</p><br>
<p>The Savu Sea  is a small sea within Indonesia named for the island of Savu  on its southern boundary. It is bounded by Savu and Rai Jua to the south, the islands of Rote and Timor  to the east, Flores and the Alor archipelago to the north/northwest, and the island of Sumba to the west/northwest. Between these islands, it flows into the Indian Ocean to the south and west, the Flores Sea to the north, and the Banda Sea to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>The Savu Sea reaches about 3,500 m in depth. It spans about 600 km from west to east, and 200 km from north to south. The largest city on the sea is Kupang, the capital of East Nusa Tenggara province on the island of Timor, with about 450,000 inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Savu Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the North. By the Southern limits of Flores Sea The North coasts of Flores, Komodo, Banta and a line to Tanjong Naroe the Northeast point of Soembawa, thence along its North coast to Tanjong Sarokaja ({{coord|8|22|S|117|10|E|display=inline}}) and Banda Sea 125° East ... on Alor Island, thence round the East point and along the North coasts of the Alor, Pantar, Lomblen and Adoenara Islands and thence across the Northern end of Flores Stait to Tanjong Serbete the Eastern extreme of Flores.</p><br>
<p>On the East. By the meridian of 125° East between Alor and Timor.</p><br>
<p>On the South. By a line from the Southwest point of Timor to the Northeast point of Roti, through this island to its Southwest point, thence a line to Poeloe Dana ({{coord|10|49|S|121|17|E|display=inline}}) and to Tanjong Ngoendjoe, the Southern extreme of Soemba and through this island to Tanjong Karosso, its Western point.</p><br>
<p>On the West. A line from Tanjong Karosso (Soemba) to Toro Doro ({{coord|8|53|S|118|30|E|display=inline}}) on the South coast of Soembawa.</p><br>
<h2>Bodies of waters within Savu</h2><br>
<p>* Molo Strait - body of waters between Flores and Rinca connects with Savu Sea/Sumba Strait to the south and Flores Sea to the north</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht Reformed Church is the fourth oldest Reformed Church in America congregation in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York. The church was established in 1677 in the town of New Utrecht, Brooklyn and is affiliated with the Reformed Church in America, a Protestant denomination. The present church was built in 1828 of stones taken from the original church built in 1700. The parish house was built in 1892 and the parsonage in 1906. The Liberty Pole, the sixth on the site of the present church, was originally erected in 1783 at the end of the Revolutionary War to harass departing British troops. The cemetery was built in 1654; 1300 dead are interred there.</p><br>
<p>The church received landmark status in 1966; the parish house and the cemetery received landmark status in 1998. Both the church and the cemetery are listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht Reformed Church jeh.JPGSteeple</p><br>
<p>New Utrecht parish house jeh.jpgParish House</p><br>
<p>NEW UTRECHT REFORMED CHURCH, KINGS COUNTY NY.jpgChurch</p><br>
<p>Mount Massive is the second highest summit of the Rocky Mountains of North America and the USA state of Colorado. The prominent 14,428 ft fourteener of the Sawatch Range is located in the Mount Massive Wilderness of San Isabel National Forest, 17.1 km west-southwest  of the City of Leadville in Lake County, Colorado, United States. Mount Massive edges out the third highest summit of the Rockies, Mount Harvard, by 7 ft, but falls short of Mount Elbert by 12 ft. It ranks as the third highest peak in the contiguous United States after Mount Whitney and Mount Elbert.</p><br>
<h2>Mountain</h2><br>
<p>Mount Massive was first surveyed and climbed in 1873 during the Hayden Survey of the American West. Survey member Henry Gannett is credited with the first ascent. Its name comes from its elongated shape: it has five summits, all above 14,000 ft, and a summit ridge over 3 mi long, resulting in more area above 14,000 ft than any other mountain in the 48 contiguous states, narrowly edging Mount Rainier in that category. Mount Elbert (14,440 ft) is Mount Massive&#39;s nearest neighbor among the fourteeners; it lies about 5 mi south-southeast of the peak.</p><br>
<p>A matter of some contention after the Great Depression arose over the heights of Massive and its neighbor, Mount Elbert, which have a height difference of only 12 ft. This led to an ongoing dispute which came to a head with the Mount Massive supporters taking it upon themselves to build large piles of stones on the summit to boost its height, only to have the Mount Elbert proponents demolish them.</p><br>
<p>A class 2 hiking path leads to the peak from the eastern face. The path is 13.6 mi round trip, with a 4,500 ft elevation gain.</p><br>
<p>There are several glacial lakes in the wilderness area. The lower slopes of the mountain are covered in lodgepole pine forests, which gradually yield to Engelmann Spruce and Fir. Treeline is just below 12,000 feet. Among the mountain&#39;s fauna are the American pika, the mountain goat, elk, mule deer, moose, gray jay, martin, and the yellow-bellied marmot.</p><br>
<p>The Sawatch Range is a high and extensive mountain range in central Colorado which includes eight of the twenty highest peaks in the Rocky Mountains, including Mount Elbert, at 14,440 ft elevation, the highest peak in the Rockies.</p><br>
<p>The range is oriented along a northwest-southeast axis, extending approximately 80 mi from 39&deg;37&prime;36&Prime;N latitude, 106&deg;32&prime;13&Prime;W longitude in the north to 38&deg;5&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 106&deg;3&prime;48&Prime;W longitude in the south. The range contains 15 peaks topping 14,000 ft, also known as 14ers. The range forms a portion of the Continental Divide, and its eastern flanks are drained by the headwaters of the Arkansas River. The western side of the range feeds the headwaters of the Roaring Fork River, the Eagle River, and the Gunnison River, tributaries of the Colorado River.</p><br>
<p>The Sawatch mountains in general are high, massive, and relatively gentle in contour. While some peaks are rugged enough to require technical climbing, most can be climbed by a simple, yet arduous hike. Notable summits include Mount Elbert, Mount Massive, La Plata Peak, Mount of the Holy Cross, and the Collegiate Peaks (Mounts Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Belford, and Oxford).</p><br>
<p>State Highway 82 traverses the range at Independence Pass (Colorado). It is also traversed by Cottonwood Pass, which connects the town of Buena Vista with Gunnison County. Both Independence Pass and Cottonwood Pass are over 12,000 ft, making them 2 of the highest passes in Colorado and are typically open only from late spring to mid autumn. Hagerman Pass is another pass to the north, connecting the Arkansas Headwaters near Leadville with the upper valley of the Fryingpan River. Hagerman pass is traversable with four-wheel drive vehicles and on foot during summer and early autumn months. The range contains numerous hiking trails within the San Isabel National Forest and White River National Forest.</p><br>
<p>__TOC__</p><br>
<h2>Prominent peaks</h2><br>
<p>Pass of Roncesvalles or Roncesvalles Pass ,  is a high mountain pass in the Pyrenees near the border between France and Spain. The pass itself is entirely in Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The pass is located between the towns of Roncesvalles and Luzaide/Valcarlos in Navarra, northern Spain. The closest town in France is Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, at a distance of about 8 km (5.0 mi) from the Spanish border. It has customarily been an important point on the Santiago de Compostela pilgrimage route.</p><br>
<p>The route over the pass departs from Lintzoain on the Spanish side and from Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port on the French side.</p><br>
<p>The pass divides the valley of the Nive on the north from the valley of the Irati on the south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Battle of Roncesvalles (778)</h3><br>
<p>In 778 Roland, the warden of the Breton March, had accompanied Charlemagne on his campaign into the Iberian peninsula across the Western Pyrenees. Einhard, the biographer of Charlemagne, mentions in his Vita Karoli Magni a fatal event involving Vasconian raiders who laid an ambush by hiding in the woods on top of a high mountain while Frankish troops were crossing the mountain pass. Subsequently, the raiders attacked the rear guards of the Frankish army on their way down into the valley. According to Einhard, Eggihard, the King&#39;s steward; Anselm ("Anshelmus"), Count Palatine; and Roland ("Hruodlandus"), Governor of the March of Brittany, with very many others, lost their lives during that ambush.</p><br>
<p>According to tradition, Roncesvalles is the site where this event took place in 778, and hence today the battle is called Battle of Roncesvalles, a landmark in Basque history leading to the foundation of the Kingdom of Pamplona. There is a stone monument near the pass commemorating the area where it is traditionally held that Roland died.</p><br>
<p>Nonetheless, the inhabitants of Valcarlos continue to claim that Valcarlos is the historic site where the battle of 778 took place because Charlemagne&#39;s troops were on their way back into the Frankish realm.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Roncesvalles (1813)</h3><br>
<p>On 25 July 1813 a battle between French Napoleonic troops and Anglo-Portuguese forces took place at the Roncesvalles Pass during the Peninsular War (1808–1814). This Battle of Roncesvalles ended in an Anglo-Portuguese defeat.</p><br>
<p>The Fox Islands are a group of islands in the eastern Aleutian Islands of the U.S. state of Alaska. The Fox Islands are the closest to mainland North America in the Aleutian chain, and just east of Samalga Pass and the Islands of Four Mountains group.</p><br>
<p>Inhabited by the Aleut for centuries, the islands, along with the rest of the Aleutians, were first visited by Europeans in 1741, when a Danish navigator employed by the Russian navy, Vitus Bering, was searching for new sources of fur for Russian fur trappers.</p><br>
<p>Foggy almost all year round, the islands are difficult to navigate due to constantly adverse weather and numerous reefs. The Fox Islands Passes are the waterways surrounding the islands. As with the other Aleutian islands, the Fox Islands are prone to frequent earthquakes year-round.</p><br>
<p>The larger Fox Islands are, from west to east, Umnak, Unalaska, Amaknak, Akutan, Akun and Unimak. Islands lying west of Akutan are in the Aleutians West Census Area. From Akutan eastward they are in the Aleutians East Borough.</p><br>
<p>Fox Islands is the English translation of the name given to the islands in the 18th century by Russian explorers and fur traders.</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>The Fox Islands were the setting for the video game Metal Gear Solid and its remake Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes, on the fictional Shadow Moses Island in a nuclear facility. Act 4 of Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots also takes place at the fictional Shadow Moses Island.</p><br>
<p>Old North Church , at 193 Salem Street, in the North End, Boston, is the location from which the famous "One if by land, two if by sea" signal is said to have been sent. This phrase is related to Paul Revere&#39;s midnight ride, of April 18, 1775, which preceded the Battles of Lexington and Concord during the American Revolution.</p><br>
<p>The church is a mission of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. It is the oldest standing church building in Boston and is a National Historic Landmark. Inside the church is a bust of George Washington, which Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, reportedly remarked was the best likeness of the first president he had ever seen.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Old North Church was built in December, 1723, and was inspired by the works of Christopher Wren, the British architect who was responsible for rebuilding London after the Great Fire. Timothy Cutler was the founding rector after serving as third rector of Yale College from 1719 to 1722.</p><br>
<p>In April 1775, Paul Revere told three Boston patriots to hang two lanterns in the steeple. These men were the church sexton Robert Newman and Captain John Pulling—the two of whom historian David Hackett Fischer suggests each carried one lantern up to the steeple—as well as Thomas Bernard, who stood watch for British troops outside the church. The lanterns were displayed to send a warning to Charlestown patriots across the Charles River about the movements of the British Army. Revere and William Dawes would later deliver the same message to Lexington themselves, but this lantern method was a fast way to inform the back-up riders in Charlestown about the movements of the British; these back-up riders planned to deliver the warning message to Lexington and Concord in case Revere and Dawes were arrested on the way.</p><br>
<p>The lanterns were hung for just under a minute to avoid catching the eyes of the British troops occupying Boston, but this was long enough for the message to be received in Charlestown. The militia waiting across the river had been told to look for the signal lanterns, and were prepared to act as soon as they saw them.</p><br>
<p>The meaning of two lanterns has been memorized by countless American schoolchildren. "One if by land, and two if by sea" is from Henry Wadsworth Longfellows poem "Paul Reveres Ride". One lantern was to notify Charlestown that the British Army would march over Boston Neck and the Great Bridge, and two were to notify them that the troops were taking boats across the Charles River to land near Phips farm (the British Army would take the "sea" route; thus, two lanterns were hung). After receiving the signal, the Charlestown Patriots sent out a rider to Lexington, but this rider did not reach his destination and his identity has disappeared from history. He was the one who might have been captured by a British patrol.</p><br>
<p>But the warning was delivered miles away to dozens of towns, first by Revere and Dawes on horses, and then by other men on horses and men who rang church bells and town bells, beat drums, and shot off warning guns. (The current status of the lanterns is not entirely clear; one is said to be in the hands of a private collector, another broken during a tour, and yet another is on display at the Concord Museum.)</p><br>
<h2>USA bicentennial celebration</h2><br>
<p>President Gerald Ford visited Old North Church on April 18, 1975. In his nationally televised speech, the President said, in part:</p><br>
<p>Let us pray here in the Old North Church tonight that those who follow 100 years or 200 years from now may look back at us and say: We were a society which combined reason with liberty and hope with freedom. May it be said above all: We kept the faith, freedom flourished, liberty lived. These are the abiding principles of our past and the greatest promise of our future.</p><br>
<p>Following President Ford&#39;s remarks, two lanterns were lit by Robert Newman Ruggles and Robert Newman Sheet, descendants of Robert Newman, who, as sexton of the Old North Church in 1775, lit the two lanterns which signaled the movement of British troops. The President then lit a third lantern, which hangs in a window of the church today.</p><br>
<p>On July 11, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II visited Boston as part of celebrations honoring the United States Bicentennial, and made reference to the aforementioned celebration events in April 1975 that followed President Fords speech. She said: "At the Old North Church last year, your President lit a third lantern dedicated to Americas third century of freedom and to renewed faith in the American ideals. May its light never be dimmed."</p><br>
<p>The Queen and Prince Philip attended a Sunday morning service at the Old North Church, sitting in a pew at the right front. The Rev. Robert W. Golledge led the service and later presented the Queen with a replica of a silver chalice made by Paul Revere. The Queen was shown the iconic statue of Paul Revere by Cyrus E. Dallin near the church before departing in a motorcade to attend a function at the Old State House.</p><br>
<h2>The bells</h2><br>
<p>Eight change ringing bells (tenor: in F) at Old North Church were cast by Abel Rudhall (Rudhall of Gloucester) in Gloucester, England in 1744 and hung in 1745. One bell has the inscription: "We are the first ring of bells cast for the British Empire in North America, A.R. 1744." The bells were restored in 1894 and in 1975. They are maintained and rung regularly by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</p><br>
<h2>Steeple damage</h2><br>
<p>The original steeple of the Old North Church was destroyed by the 1804 Snow hurricane. A replacement steeple, designed by Charles Bulfinch, was toppled by Hurricane Carol on August 25, 1954. The current steeple uses design elements from the original and the Bulfinch version. The church is now 174 feet tall. At its tip is the original weather vane.</p><br>
<h2>The other "Old North"</h2><br>
<p>Before the construction of the "Old North Church" (Christ Church, Boston), there was another church in Boston called the "Old North" (Meetinghouse). This Congregationalist meeting house was founded in North Square, across the street from what is now called "Paul Revere&#39;s house". This church was once pastored by Cotton Mather, the minister now known largely for his involvement in the Salem witch trials.</p><br>
<h2>Crypt</h2><br>
<p>In 2009, an archeologist began examining the estimated 1,100 bodies buried in 37 tombs in the basement. The crypt was in use between 1732 and 1860, and each tomb is sealed with a wooden or slate door, with many doors covered over by plaster as ordered by the city of Boston in the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>Founding Rector Timothy Cutler and his wife were buried under the altar together. Other notable figures buried under the church include British Marine Major John Pitcairn, who died at the Battle of Bunker Hill and was entombed along with many other soldiers killed in this battle. So is Captain Samuel Nicholson of the USS Constitution. A behind the scenes tour run by the church takes tourists down into the crypt, as well as up to the bell-ringing chamber.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Old North Church is today one of four church sites among the 16 stops on the Freedom Trail.</p><br>
<p>The Wading River is a tributary of the Mullica River, approximately 10.1 mi long, in southern New Jersey in the United States. The river drains a rural forested area of the Pinelands, one of the most pristine areas along the coast of the northeastern United States.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The primary source of the Wading River is its 22.7 mi West Branch, which rises north of Chatsworth in central Burlington County, south of Brendan T. Byrne State Forest, and flows generally south through Wharton State Forest. It joins the Oswego River near Harrisville to form the main stem of the Wading River. The Wading flows southeast and joins the Mullica River from the north near its mouth, approximately 10 mi north of Atlantic City. The lower 3 mi of the river forms a navigable estuary, an arm of the estuary of the Mullica, just west of the Garden State Parkway.</p><br>
<p>Like the Mullica, the river is noted for its extensive wetlands, including large runs of striped bass.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>* Oswego River</p><br>
<p>* Tulpehocken Creek</p><br>
<p>* West Branch Wading River</p><br>
<p>The Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii, known as Mauna Ala  in the Hawaiian language, is the final resting place of Hawaii&#39;s two prominent royal families: the Kamehameha Dynasty and the Kalākaua Dynasty.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The site is located at 2261 Nuuanu Avenue in Honolulu, Hawaii on the island of Oahu, coordinates 21&deg;19&prime;30&Prime;N latitude, 157&deg;50&prime;50&Prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<p>The grounds of the mausoleum are surrounded by a black fence, bearing the royal seal of the Kingdom of Hawaii at the gate. A small chapel is located near the center, immediately behind the tomb of Kalākaua and his family, and to the right of the Kamehameha tomb, Bishop Monument, and Wyllie tomb. The chapel, in the shape of a Latin cross, is one of the few examples of Gothic Revival architecture in the islands.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The 2.7 acre (11,000 m) mausoleum was designed by architect Theodore Heuck. King Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma planned it as a burial site for their families. However, the first to be interred was their four-year-old son, Prince Albert, who died August 27, 1862.</p><br>
<p>King Kamehameha IV became ill soon afterwards and died November 30, 1863, just 15 months after his son. His brother Lot Kamehameha came to the throne as King Kamehameha V.</p><br>
<p>Immediately Kamehameha V started construction of the mausoleum building. The Right Reverend Thomas Nettleship Staley, first Anglican Bishop of Honolulu (1823–1898), oversaw construction. The west (Ewa) wing was completed at the end of January 1864. A large funeral procession February 3, 1864, brought the body of Kamehameha IV from Iolani Palace near Kawaiahao Church. His casket was placed on a stand in the new wing. Later in the evening, bearers brought the casket of Ka Haku o Hawaii (as Prince Albert was known) and laid him to rest alongside his father. Queen Emma was so overcome with grief that she camped on the grounds of Mauna Ala, and slept in the mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>The mausoleum was completed in 1865, adjacent to the public 1844 Oahu Cemetery. The mausoleum seemed a fitting place to bury other past monarchs of the Kingdom of Hawaii and their families. The remains were transferred in a solemn ceremony leading from the burial vault called Pohukaina at Iolani Palace to the Nuuanu Valley October 30, 1865.</p><br>
<p>Robert Crichton Wyllie, Minister of Foreign Affairs, was buried here in October 1865.</p><br>
<p>Over time, the remains of almost all of Hawaii&#39;s monarchs, their consorts, and various princes and princesses would rest at the Royal Mausoleum. Kamehameha I and William Charles Lunalilo are the only two kings not resting at the mausoleum. William Charles Lunalilo, the shortest-reigning Hawaiian monarch, (one year and 25 days only), was buried in a church cemetery resting in the courtyard of Kawaiahao Church. Princess Nāhienaena and Queen Keōpūolani are buried on Maui at Waiola Church.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha I&#39;s remains were hidden in a traditional practice to preserve the mana (power) of the alii at the time of the Hawaiian religion. For several generations, descendants of Hoolulu, one of the few chosen to help bury the remains of Kamehameha, have been appointed as caretakers.</p><br>
<p>Mauna Ala was removed from the public lands of the United States by a joint resolution of Congress in 1900, two years after the Annexation in 1898 of Hawaii Territories by President William McKinley.</p><br>
<p>The Mausoleum is one of the only places in Hawaii where the flag of Hawaii can officially fly alone without the American flag; the other two places are ʻIolani Palace and the Puʻukoholā Heiau.</p><br>
<p>June 24, 1910, the caskets from the Kalākaua family were moved to an underground vault excavated from rock.</p><br>
<p>In 1922 the main building was converted to a chapel, and the royal remains were moved to tombs constructed on the grounds. The chapel was added to the National Register of Historic Places August 7, 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Kahu of the Royal Mausoleum</h2><br>
<p>These are the keepers or kahu of the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna Ala:</p><br>
<p>Nahalau, till 1873</p><br>
<p>Joseph Keaoa, from July 10, 1873</p><br>
<p>Haumea, from May 3, 1878</p><br>
<p>Lanihau, from March 6, 1885</p><br>
<p>Keano, from July 31, 1886</p><br>
<p>Naholowaʻa, from September 17, 1888</p><br>
<p>Poʻomaikelani (1839–1895), from October 15, 1888</p><br>
<p>Maria Angela Kahaawelani Beckley Kahea (1847–1909), from March 24, 1893 to July 11, 1909</p><br>
<p>David Kaipeelua Kahea (1846–1921)</p><br>
<p>Frederick Malulani Beckley Kahea (1882–1949), from 1915 to 1947</p><br>
<p>William Edward Bishop Kaiheʻekai Taylor (1882–1956), from 1947 to 1956</p><br>
<p>Emily Kekahaloa Namauʻu Taylor, from 1956 to 1961</p><br>
<p>ʻIolani Luahine, from 1961 to 1965</p><br>
<p>Lydia Namahanaikaleleokalani Taylor Maiʻoho, from 1966 to 1994</p><br>
<p>William "Bill" John Kaiheʻekai Maiʻoho, from 1995 to 2015</p><br>
<p>William Bishop Kaiheʻekai "Kai" Maiʻoho, from 2015 to present</p><br>
<p>Cayman Brac is an island that is part of the Cayman Islands. It lies in the Caribbean Sea about 145 km north-east of Grand Cayman and 8 km east of Little Cayman. It is about 19 km long, with an average width of 2 km. Its terrain is the most prominent of the three Cayman Islands due to "The Bluff", a limestone outcrop that rises steadily along the length of the island up to 43 m above sea level at the eastern end. The island is named after this prominent feature, as "brac" is a Gaelic name for a bluff.</p><br>
<p>The Teignmouth Electron, the boat in which Donald Crowhurst attempted to sail round the world single-handed in the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, has been left to decay on the south coast of Cayman Brac.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Christopher Columbus sighted Cayman Brac and its sister island, Little Cayman, on 10 May 1503 when his ship was blown off course during a trip between Hispaniola and Panama. He named them "Las Tortugas" because of the many turtles he spotted on the islands. The Cayman Islands were renamed by Sir Francis Drake, who came upon the islands during a voyage in 1586. He used the word "Caymanas", taken from the Carib name for crocodiles after seeing many of the large crocodilians. Many people believe he had only seen the Rock Iguanas that inhabit the island today.</p><br>
<p>During the heyday of piracy, pirates would use Cayman Brac as a haven and a place to replenish their supplies as there are a number of fresh water wells on the island and had many sources of food included in the local flora and fauna.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<h3>Diving</h3><br>
<p>Of interest to scuba divers is a 100 m Russian Koni class frigate built in the Soviet Union in 1984 for the Cuban Navy. It is one of only a few sunken Soviet naval vessels in the Western Hemisphere, and the only one that is easily dived. The Koni II class frigate was purchased and sunk by the Cayman Islands government in September 1996. Originally designated 356, the frigate was rechristened the M/V Captain Keith Tibbetts, after a well-known Cayman Brac politician. The wreck is the only Russian warship that divers can explore in the Western hemisphere. It originally sat upright at a depth of 27 m with the deck at 18 m, until wave action generated by a winter Norwester storm (December 1998-January 1999) which nearly tore the ship in two. The result was that the fore section tipped to about a 45 degree angle in relation to the remainder of the still-upright aft portion. and the midships became a debris field. The wrecks stern area was essentially unaffected. The frigate is located in a sandy area with generally good visibility, 200 m offshore (a fairly long swim) from Buccaneer, on the islands north side, near the western tip of the island. There are numerous openings in the upper portion of the ship for non-wreck certified divers. Many more openings are available since the ship broke in half. The site also serves as an artificial reef. Other interesting dive sites are Radar Reef, Cemetery Wall, and the Wilderness Wall, all well covered in corals and with a wide diversity of marine life.</p><br>
<h3>Caves</h3><br>
<p>Cayman Brac also appeals to visitors of many persuasions besides divers. Caves are found around the island, offering spelunkers a glimpse of delicate underground formations. Steps and, in some cases, ladders have been constructed to allow visitor access to more remote caves. One cave, Rebecca&#39;s Cave, contains the grave of a young girl lost in a struggle against the ravages of the great 1932 Cuba hurricane, and it is a Cayman National Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h3>Rock climbing</h3><br>
<p>Rock climbing was developed beginning in 1992 and the island now contains about 100 sport climbs. Trad and multipitch climbs are rare.</p><br>
<h3>Walking and hiking trails</h3><br>
<p>Walking and hiking trails have been opened by the Nature Tourism Programme which allow exploration of the island&#39;s dense Karst forestation. Unique flora and fauna thrive here and can be observed in the wild.</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Cayman Brac&#39;s waters are especially utilized for both fishing and the pursuit of big game fish.</p><br>
<h2>Local economy</h2><br>
<p>The local economy tends to be concentrated in three areas which are probably typical for many Caribbean locales: tourism, municipal government, and local enterprises. Although on the Brac, the government (including Cayman Airways, the National carrier) is the largest employer. Some of the more economically prominent families in Grand Cayman originate from Cayman Brac, namely the Kirkconnells, Fosters, Waltons, and Scotts.The majority of the tourism sector is concentrated on scuba diving, although this is in recent decline in the hospitality sector, with one of the two local hotels, Divi Resorts, having closed operations in 2006. The island&#39;s economy was also adversely impacted by significant damage from Category 4 Hurricane Paloma in November 2008.</p><br>
<p>A local enterprise that is nearly unique to Cayman Brac is its artists who work in a local stone known as Caymanite, typically making jewelry or small stone carvings. Two of these artists have been Mr. Eddie Scott and Mr. Tenson Scott, whose works have won national contests,</p><br>
<p>as well as being the official gift to Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Andrew during the 1994 State Visit. For the 2011 Wedding of Prince William, the official gift was crafted by Mr. Horacio Esteban, who grew up on Cayman Brac and is currently living on Grand Cayman.</p><br>
<h2>Current airline service</h2><br>
<p>Charles Kirkconnell International Airport (formerly known as Gerrard Smith International Airport) serves the island. All scheduled passenger flights are operated by Cayman Airways and subsidiary Cayman Airways Express with service to and from Grand Cayman being flown with Saab 340B regional turboprops and also small Twin Otter turboprop aircraft with limited flights also being operated on this interisland route with Boeing 737-300 jetliners. In addition, Cayman Airways provides limited seasonal 737 jet service between Cayman Brac and Miami either nonstop or via one stop in Grand Cayman and also operates weekly nonstop 737 service to Havana.</p><br>
<h2>Historical airline service</h2><br>
<p>In 1965, Cayman Brac Airways (CBA), a subsidiary of LACSA Airlines, was operating twice weekly round trip service flown with a Beech Model 18 twin prop aircraft on a routing of Grand Cayman - Little Cayman - Cayman Brac - Montego Bay. According to the airline&#39;s May 1, 1965 timetable, connecting service to Miami via Grand Cayman was offered by LACSA, an airline based in Costa Rica, while additional connecting service to Miami as well as to New York City was offered by Pan Am via Montego Bay. In 1968, the government of the Cayman Islands purchased a controlling interest in Cayman Brac Airways from LACSA and then formed Cayman Airways which has served the airport since that time.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The Cayman Islands Education Department operates two primary schools and one secondary school on the island. These include:</p><br>
<p>Creek & Spot Bay Primary School (Infant school and Junior School)</p><br>
<p>West End Primary School</p><br>
<p>Layman E. Scott Sr. High School</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Aerosmith mentions Cayman Brac in their song "Permanent Vacation" from the 1987 album of the same name., though the liner notes mispell the island as “Cayman Brack”.</p><br>
<p>John Grisham&#39;s book, The Firm, mentions Cayman Brac as the final destination for the main character, Mitch McDeere.</p><br>
<p>The Tuckahoe River is a 27.6 mi blackwater river in southern New Jersey in the United States.</p><br>
<p>One of the few blackwater rivers in the northeastern United States, the river drains an area of the southern Pinelands and empties into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Tuckahoe River rises in central Atlantic County, approximately 5 mi east of Vineland and flows south, then east, forming part of the boundary between Atlantic and Cape May counties, then past Tuckahoe, where it becomes navigable. It flows into Great Egg Harbor Bay just south of the mouth of the Great Egg Harbor River, approximately 5 mi southwest of Atlantic City. The lower 4 mi form a widening estuary through Great Cedar Swamp downstream from its head of navigation at Tuckahoe.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>* Cedar Swamp Creek</p><br>
<p>The Shot Tower located in Dubuque, Iowa, is one of the last remaining shot towers in the United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and remains a recognized symbol of the city. At its location near the Mississippi River, the Tower can be seen from the riverwalk and is currently undergoing extensive renovations. It stands 120 ft tall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The tower was built in 1856 to provide lead shot for the military. The invention of the shot tower enabled economical production of many nearly perfect lead spheres of the right size to fit in a musket. To make the shot, molten lead was poured through a grate at the top of the tower. The droplets that fell from the grate were of relatively uniform size, and the fall provided enough time for the liquid-metal droplet to form into a sphere before landing in the water below. The water cooled the lead to its solid state, retaining the spherical shape.</p><br>
<p>The shot tower struggled almost immediately due to economic downturn from the Panic of 1857. When the Civil War broke, the Union Army purchased shot from towers in St. Louis, Missouri. A St. Louis company, Chadbourne & Co., purchased the Dubuque tower, but did not use it. After the war, the Standard Lumber Company used it as a fire watchtower.</p><br>
<p>The tower was abandoned after a series of fires in 1911 destroyed the local lumber industry and damaged the tower’s wooden interior. The fire was determined to be arson, but no one was ever arrested. In 1976, the tower was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Tuckpointing and repairs soon followed, and in 2004, the Shot Tower became part of ongoing riverfront renovations.</p><br>
<p>The Maurice River is a tributary of Delaware Bay in Salem County and Cumberland County, New Jersey in the United States. The river was named for Maurice, Prince of Orange.</p><br>
<h2>Watershed and course</h2><br>
<p>The Maurice River, pronounced "Morris," is approximately 50 mi (80 km) long with a drainage area of 386 sq mi (1,000 km). It is the second longest and second largest tributary to Delaware Bay. Its watershed includes an extensive southern portion of the coastal forested wetlands known as the Pine Barrens. Its mouth on Delaware Bay is surrounded by extensive salt marshes and has provided an historically important oystering ground.</p><br>
<p>It is born at the confluence of Still Run and Scotland Run, beneath the waters of Willow Grove Lake in Pittsgrove, Salem County and flows generally south-southeast, passing 2 mi west of Vineland. At Millville it is impounded to form the Union Lake reservoir, approximately 3 mi long. South of Millville it becomes navigable, forming a 10 mi estuary that empties into Maurice River Cove on Delaware Bay. The estuary is joined from the northeast by Menantico Creek, the Manumuskin River, and Muskee Creek.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality and stewardship</h2><br>
<p>The river is considered especially pristine for the region, forming a critical ecological link between the Pine Barrens and the Delaware Bay systems, except that the State Of New Jersey advises against eating more than 8 ounces of fish caught in the river in any week or month, depending on the species, for the general population and advises against eating any fish from the Maurice River for the High Risk population. It is the location of one of the only stands of wild rice in New Jersey, and provides habitat for 53 percent of the species in New Jersey designated as endangered. In 1993, Congress designated 28.9 mi of the river and its tributaries as the Maurice National Scenic and Recreational River, as part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers program.</p><br>
<p>A local nonprofit organization, Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc., is a regional watershed organization that focuses its work on the Maurice River watershed, from Willow Grove Lake southward. The South Jersey Land and Water Trust focuses on the northern portion of the watershed, from Willow Grove Lake northward.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Menantico Creek</p><br>
<p>Manumuskin River</p><br>
<p>Muddy Run</p><br>
<p>The Lasky-DeMille Barn is one of Hollywood&#39;s first film studios. It is a designated California State Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is now the site of the Hollywood Heritage Museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The barn was built in about 1895 on the Hollywood, California citrus ranch of Robert Northam. Located at the southeast corner of Selma and Vine Streets, it housed horses, carriages, hay, and other farm supplies. It was sold in 1904 to Jacob Stern.</p><br>
<p>In March 1913, it was purchased by L. L. Burns (founder of Western Costume Company) and Harry Revier. The pair rented the barn, now called the Burns and Revier Studio and Laboratory, as a film location. In December of that year, Cecil B. DeMille, in association with Jesse Lasky, leased the barn and studio facilities for $250.00 a month establishing the Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play Company and began production of The Squaw Man (1914), the first feature film to be produced in the Hollywood area.</p><br>
<p>In 1926, the barn was moved to the back lot of United Studios, where present day Paramount was later built. It went through several uses as a film set, research library, conference area and later the Paramount gymnasium.</p><br>
<p>In a ceremony attended by its founders, the Lasky-DeMille Barn was dedicated on December 27, 1956, as "Hollywood&#39;s First Major Film Company Studio" and designated California State Historic Landmark No. 554, representing the birth of the Hollywood motion picture industry and becoming the first landmark associated with it.</p><br>
<p>In October 1979, the barn was moved off the Paramount lot to a vacant lot in Hollywood. It was then moved by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce to the parking lot of The Hollywood Palace theater, where it was boarded up and fenced in until a permanent site could be found.</p><br>
<p>The Lasky-DeMille Barn was acquired by Hollywood Heritage, Inc., in February 1983. It was then moved to its present site at the southern end of the parking lot of the Hollywood Bowl, where it was restored and made into the Hollywood Heritage Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Arawhata River  is in the West Coast region of the South Island of New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The river has its headwaters in the Mount Aspiring National Park. It drains the western side of the Southern Alps and heads in a northerly direction for 60 km, flowing into Jackson Bay. A small lake, Lake Ellery, drains into the river near its mouth, via a short tributary, the Jackson River.</p><br>
<p>Access is possible up the river by jetboat. Access to the glaciers, forests and flats of the upper reaches of the valley is restricted by Ten Hour Gorge. Glacial silt in the river imparts an opaque green to greyish coloration to the water. The lower valley is grazed by cattle by the local farmers under a grazing licence. The majority of the land in the area is publicly owned and administered by the Department of Conservation.</p><br>
<p>Due to the high rainfall on the western side of the Southern Alps, the river level can rapidly rise.</p><br>
<p>Hatfield Swamp is a fresh water wetland area in the US state of New Jersey, forming what might be considered the "second bank" of the Passaic River between Morris and Essex counties.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>During the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods, when the North American plate separated from the African plate, an aborted rift system was created. The resulting rift valley, known as the Newark Basin, was filled with alternating layers of red bed sediment and flood basalts. Over millions of years, the rift valley was faulted, tilted, and eroded, until the edges of the hard flood basalt layers formed ridges. Prior to 20,000 years before the present, an ancestral Passaic River flowed through a gap in these ridges. This changed when the Wisconsin Glacier, a massive continental ice sheet which formed during the last ice age, advanced on the region and permanently plugged the gap with glacial rubble. As the glacier eventually melted back, water pooled behind the ridges (known today as the Watchung Mountains), forming Glacial Lake Passaic. After thousands of years, the lake drained leaving behind many swamps with various hardwood trees struggling to take hold, including the Hatfield Swamp.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Whippany River flows into the Rockaway River, at the western end of the swamp. The Rockaway River travels a short distance and then flows into the Passaic River near the center of the swamp. The USGS gaging station is 1.3 mi downstream of the Rockaway River confluence. At this point the Passaic River drainage is three hundred forty nine square miles. This includes the Rockaway River drainage of one hundred twenty five square miles and the Whippany River drainage of sixty nine square miles.</p><br>
<p>The area is from 180 ft above sea level to 160 ft. Latitude 40.85 N and Longitude 74.32 W</p><br>
<p>The area of Hatfield Swamp is approximately 2,500 acre, located in northern New Jersey.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The swamp is named for Cornelius Hetfield who owned and operated a mill sometime before the American Revolution. During the struggle, the properties of Hetfield, an acknowledged Loyalist, were confiscated and sold to Cyrus Crane. After the death of family member Herbert Crane in the 1960s, the mill was dismantled and moved to Allaire State Park in Monmouth County, New Jersey.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Hatfield Swamp floods several times a year, from heavy rain, snow melt in spring, or hurricanes passing through the area. The area is the joining point of three rivers. Due to the flooding, this makes it a difficult place to live for mammals such as deer, raccoons, possums, skunks and fox to live. Most of these animals live on the fringes of the swamp where the ground is higher.</p><br>
<p>Muskrats are low in population in the swamp due to several factors. The first is the flooding of the area which fills bank dens with water. The second is the lack of plant foods that the muskrats eat. The third is water pollution, as the three rivers that were once highly polluted has gotten better, however pollutants remain in the soil and water.</p><br>
<p>Waterfowl that pass through he area in the autumn stop and rest in the swamp before proceeding south.</p><br>
<p>Fish that inhabit the Rockaway River and Whippany River is carp and catfish.</p><br>
<p>The area has a northern deciduous forest consisting of various oaks, maples, sweet gum, and elm. Most trees are from six to ten inches (254 mm), with some going to twenty inches. Due to the constant flooding makes it difficult for hardwood trees to grow.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<p>It is part of West Essex Park and has a number of trails for public hiking. Both the Essex County Chapter of the Sierra Club and the New Jersey Audubon Society lead trips throughout the swamp all year long. Information on trips can be found at the Essex County Environmental Center. The swamp land is very flat so hiking is very easy.</p><br>
<p>Avala  is a mountain in Serbia, overlooking Belgrade. It is situated in the south-eastern corner of the city and provides a great panoramic view of Belgrade, Vojvodina and Šumadija, as the surrounding area on all sides is mostly lowlands. It stands at 511 m above sea level, which means that it enters the mountain category just by 11 m.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Avala is located 16 km south-east of downtown Belgrade. The entire area of the mountain belongs to the Belgrade City area, majority of it being in the municipality of Voždovac, with the eastern slopes being in the municipality of Grocka, and the southernmost extension in the municipality of Sopot. It is possible that in the future the entire area of Avala will create a separate municipality of Belgrade, named Avalski Venac.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Avala is a low type of the Pannonian island mountain, though it is actually the northernmost mountain in Šumadija. Until 600,000 years ago, when the surrounding low areas were flooded by the inner Pannonian Sea, Avala was an island, just as the neighboring mountains (Kosmaj, Fruška Gora, etc.), thus earning its geographical classification. However, the Avala remains an "island mountain" as the area around it, Pinosava plateau of the northern Low Šumadija, is low and mostly flat. In the north it extends into the woods of Stepin Lug.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is built of serpentinite, limestone and magmatic rocks, which are injected in the shape of cone (laccolith). Other peaks include Ladne vode (340 m), Zvečara (347 m), Sakinac (315 m). The Avala had deposits of ores, most notably lead and mercury&#39;s ore of cinnabarite but mining activities which can be traced to the pre-Antiquity times. Archeologist Miloje Vasić believed that the vast mines of cinnabarite (mercury-sulfide) on Avala were crucial for the development of the Vinča culture, on the banks of the Danube circa 5700 BC. Settlers of Vinča apparently melted cinnabarite and used it in metallurgy. During the Middle Ages, the cinnabarite was used for the fresco paintings and was exported to Greece. Mining activities ceased by the 1960s, when the last two mines, Šuplja Stena and Crveni Breg, were closed. Šuplja Stena ("Hollow Boulder") was a mercury mine while in Crveni Breg ("Red Hill"), lead, zinc, silver and gold were extracted. Crveni Breg was closed in 1953 and has traces of the usage from the Roman period. It has seven levels, out of which four are flooded, and the stalactites are being formed inside. By 2009 upper level was prepared for the visitations, being cleaned and lighted for some 300 m but the project of turning it into the tourist attraction failed.</p><br>
<p>Avala is also a location where the mineral avalite, named after the mountain, was found. A greenish mineral, chromian, magnesian or potassic alumosilicate (variety of the mineral illite), it was discovered by Serbian chemist Sima Lozanić who established its formula. Optically examined by the Israeli mineralogist Tamir Grodek who classified it as a member of the mica mineral group.</p><br>
<p>On the southern slopes, in the area of Ripanj, the closed Tešićev Majdan ("Tešić Quarry") is located. The stone pit was privately owned, but was confiscated by the state after the World War II and stopped operating before 1960. In the process of the restitution after 2000, the quarry was returned to the surviving owners, but they live abroad so the quarry is still not operational. It is the only known location of kersantite in Serbia, a worldwide rare type of greenish granite. For decades, kersantite was used for the Belgrade buildings, including some of the most representative ones. Features built with this stone include the fountain between the Novi Dvor and Stari Dvor, bordure of the Hotel Bristol, Small Staircase in Kalemegdan Park, pedestal of the Play of Black Horses statues in front of the House of the National Assembly of Serbia and buildings of Belgrade Cooperative, Elementary School King Petar I, Cathedral Church of St. Michael the Archangel and Main Post Office Building. As the buildings began to deteriorate in time, city authorities showed interest in the quarry, not only for the repairs but also for the future construction. For now, when some deteriorated kersantine feature has to be replaced, the artificial stone is used (as in the case of the pedestal of the Play of Black Horses). Geologists suggested to the city to obtain the ownership over the land on which the pit is located and to reopen it. City government announced in 2012 that it will unilaterally explore the pit until it gets reopened and inspected it in 2013. They found still existing large amounts of already cut kersantite and that locals illegally extract the stone and crush it to cover the roads with it. After the political change in Belgrade in the late 2013, the motion was dropped.</p><br>
<p>On the mountain itself, there are several springs, of which the Sakinac is best known. Despite being the only mountain in the area, the Avala is not a source of many rivers. The Topčiderka river, originating in the woods of Lipovička šuma on the south-west, flows on the western slopes of Avala, while the river Bolečica flows on the eastern slopes. Other minor flows include the Vranovac, a tributary to the Bolečica. Small artificial lake near the village of Pinosava is created on the western slope of the mountain. The settlements in the area are notorious for problems with shortages of drinking water during summer.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<h3>Protection</h3><br>
<p>Despite being officially protected for almost 150 years, it was only in 2007 that preservation plans for the mountain were made. That way, Avala entered a circle of protected green areas of Belgrade, which also included the mountain of Kosmaj, the island of Veliko Ratno Ostrvo and the woods of Stepin Lug, with the forests of Košutnjak and Topčider to be added next. Protected areas of Avala spread over 489,13 hectare</p><br>
<h3>Plant life</h3><br>
<p>Avala is known for its diverse plant life, despite not being a tall mountain. There are over 600 plant species living on the mountain. Some of them are protected by the law as natural rarities, like certain types of laburnum, box tree, black broom, common holly and martagon lily. High woods mostly consist of durmast oak, Turkey oak, hornbeam, beech, linden, black pine, black locust and other trees.</p><br>
<h3>Animal life</h3><br>
<p>Almost 100 species of birds live on Avala, including strictly protected Eurasian sparrowhawk, European honey buzzard and European green woodpecker.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, the town of Žrnov or "Avalski Grad" (Avala town) was located on top of Avala. In 1442. it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, which built a new town in Žrnov&#39;s place as a counter-fortress to the Belgrade city fort, and renamed it "havale", which originally comes from Arabic and means "obstacle" or "shelter".</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>The mountain has been protected since 1859 as a natural monument, or, by the modern standards, "sight of the exquisite values". That year, Prince Miloš Obrenović of Serbia issued an order for the Avala to get fenced and protected that way. Remains of the medieval Žrnov were removed in 1934 to make way for the Monument to the Unknown Hero. The destruction of Žrnov, which was demolished with dynamite, caused a massive discontent among the citizens of Belgrade. In the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the mountain was declared a national park, in 1936. In 1946, by the ukaz of the Presidium of the National Assembly of Serbia, Avala was reduced to the status of the "public property of general benefit" and placed under direct management of the Government of Serbia. In 1965, a 202 m Avala TV Tower was constructed, one of the tallest structures in the Balkans, by the architects Uglješa Bogunović, Slobodan Janjić and M. Krstić. It had a restaurant-look out on 120 m. The tower was destroyed during the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999. Its total reconstruction began in 2006 and was officially opened at a ceremony on 21 April 2010. The new tower is almost the exact replica of the destroyed one, including the unique three-feet base. Belgrade&#39;s General Urbanistic Plan (GUP) for the 2001-2021 period defines the mountain as a sports and recreation area.</p><br>
<h3>Settlements</h3><br>
<p>Settlements near the mountain are not much populous. They include Ripanj (on the south, the largest one, with a population of 11,088 by the 2011 census of population), Pinosava (on the west, 3,151), Zuce (on the north-east, 2,001), Beli Potok (on the north, 3,621), all in the municipality of Voždovac, and Vrčin (on the east, 9,088), in the municipality of Grocka.</p><br>
<h3>Administration</h3><br>
<p>A motion is in the process of creating a new municipality called Avalski Venac, which would include all these settlements and possible few others, but Zoran Alimpić, the acting mayor of Belgrade from September 2007 to August 2008, stated that new municipalities will probably not be formed before 2011 or 2012. The idea was later put on hiatus.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Avala is well connected with Belgrade and other parts of Serbia via roads, highway and railroads.</p><br>
<p>Avalski drum ("Avala road") is an extension of the Boulevard of the Liberation, which directly connects the mountain to downtown Belgrade (via neighborhoods of Selo Rakovica, Jajinci, Banjica, Voždovac, Autokomanda, Karađorđev Park and Slavija). On the mountain, Avalski drum divides in three:</p><br>
<p>one section is a circular road which goes to the top of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>second section continues to the south-west, through Ripanj, Lipovička Šuma and Barajevo, and makes a connection to the major road in the western Serbia, Ibarska magistrala.</p><br>
<p>third section goes south-east, parallel to the highway, through Trešnja and Ralja and further to the south and east (where it meets the highway).</p><br>
<p>Sub-Avalan settlements are directly connected to Belgrade by the bus lines of the citys public transportation, with terminus in the Belgrades neighborhood of Trošarina.</p><br>
<p>The Belgrade–Niš highway, a section of one of the major European roads, European route E75, runs east of the mountain, through Vrčin. North of the mountain runs Kružni put, the most important road in the southern outskirts of Belgrade, which connects all the southern sections of the city. It is also a projected route of the future Belgrade beltway which would continue through the Bolečica river valley and the projected Vinča-Omoljica bridge over the Danube into Vojvodina.</p><br>
<p>Railroads also run on both sides of the mountain. Eastern branch is a section of the Belgrade-Niš railroad. It runs through the tunnel under the Avala at Beli Potok and then through Včrin. Western branch runs through Ripanj and the long "Ripanj tunnel" (though not under the Avala), and continues into western Serbia and further into Montenegro, as part of the Belgrade–Bar railway.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Avala is a traditional picnic resort for Belgraders, but its capacities are not being used much. In 1984 number of tourists was only 15,700 despite over 1,5 million of inhabitants in Belgrade. Some attractions and capacities on the mountain include:</p><br>
<p>Šuplja Stena, a former very popular childrens resort, located on the mountains wind rose; after the 1990s it turned into a residential place refugees from the Yugoslav Wars but was reconstructed and reopened in 2012</p><br>
<p>Avala Tower, landmark TV Tower that was destroyed during the 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia, later rebuilt in 2010; In June 2017 the tourist complex was opened at the base of the tower. It includes, among other facilities, a restaurant, ethno-gallery, souvenir shop, sports fields and outdoor gym.</p><br>
<p>Weekend-settlement on the southern slopes</p><br>
<p>Motel "1000 Ruža" in Beli Potok; now adapted into the 3-star hotel</p><br>
<p>Hotel "Avala&quot built in 1928 by the Russian architect Viktor Lukomsky. Russian sculptor Aleksandr Zagrodnyuk sculpted two sphinx which are located at the hotel’s north side, on the staircase to the hotel’s terrace. The hotel was privatised in 2005, but in 2007 it was declared a cultural monument</p><br>
<p>Trešnja resort, in the southernmost extension of the mountain</p><br>
<p>Mountaineering camp of; Projected by the architect Slobodan Mihajlović in the 1960s, on the northern slopes of the Avala, above Beli Potok. It was renovated in 2003</p><br>
<p>Mountaineering camp of Mitrovićev dom. It was made of wood and stone and named (“Mitrović Home”) after dr Dušan Špirta Mitrović, a medical doctor and volunteer on the Salonika Front. In 1981 it was declared a cultural monument but in 2014 it burned to the ground in the fire. In 2016-17 it was reconstructed to look exactly the same way it looked before the fire.</p><br>
<h3>Monuments on Avala</h3><br>
<p>Special attractions of the Avala are several monuments. They include:</p><br>
<p>Monument to the Unknown Hero - dedicated to the unknown Serbian soldier from World War I; sculptured by Ivan Meštrović in the form of mausoleum with 8 caryatides (columns shaped like female figures, in this case each one representing a woman from a different historical region of Yugoslavia), it was completed in 1938. An earlier monument was erected in 1915 at the location by the German soldiers, on the orders of Field marshal August von Mackensen.</p><br>
<p>Monument to the Soviet war veterans - dedicated to the members of the Soviet military delegation which died in an airplane crash on the Avala on October 19, 1964. They were flying to Belgrade for the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the liberation of Belgrade in the World War II, October 20, 1944, as Red Army forces participated in the expulsion of Germans. Among those killed in the crash were Marshal Sergey Semyonovich Biryuzov, chief of the General Staff and first deputy defense minister of the Soviet Union and General Vladimir Ivanovich Zhdanov. The monument was sculptured by Jovan Kratohvil.</p><br>
<p>Memorial Park – dedicated to the victims of the World War II</p><br>
<p>Monument to Vasa Čarapić - dedicated to Vasa Čarapić, one of the leaders of the First Serbian Uprising in 1804 and liberator of Belgrade from the Turks, built in Beli Potok, his birthplace, near the mountaineers home Čarapićev brest. It was sculptured in 1991 by Dušan Nikolić.</p><br>
<h3>Mountaineering camp</h3><br>
<p>Annually, from July 1 until July 10, a traditional camp of Serbian mountaineers is held on the Avala. Among other mountaineering activities, there are competitions in:</p><br>
<p>Orienteering</p><br>
<p>Climbing (on an outdoor Climbing wall)</p><br>
<p>Mountain biking</p><br>
<p>Mountain running</p><br>
<p>Washington Place is a Greek Revival palace in the Hawaii Capital Historic District in Honolulu, Hawaii. It was where Queen Liliuokalani was arrested during the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Later it became the official residence of the Governor of Hawaii. It is a National Historic Landmark, designated in 2007. The current governor&#39;s residence was built in 2008 behind the historic residence, and is located on the same grounds as Washington Place.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>An American merchant sea captain, John Dominis (1796–1846) came to America in 1819 from Trieste, probably from a Croatian family. After making a number of voyages across the Pacific, he relocated to the islands in 1837 with his Bostonian wife Mary Jones Dominis (1803–1889) and son John Owen Dominis (1832–1891) from New York. The captain was awarded some land in 1842 as settlement of a lawsuit with the British Consul Richard Charlton. The captain continued to take voyages to raise money for the construction of a house. In 1846 he sailed for China on the Brig William Neilson, intending to purchase Chinese-made furniture for the house, which was nearing completion. The ship was lost at sea, along with the American Agent George Brown, and Mary Dominis became a widow. She rented out a suite of rooms to support herself and young John Owen. One of the first boarders was Anthony Ten Eyck, an American Commissioner to the islands appointed by President James K. Polk who established the American Legation in the house. Ten Eyck named the house "Washington Place" in a February 22, 1848 letter, after George Washington in celebration of the first US president&#39;s birthday. King Kamehameha III officially approved the name.</p><br>
<p>The American flag was raised at the residence until Mary Dominis&#39;s death in 1889 when Liliuokalani had it removed. In 1917, Liliuokalani raised the American flag at Washington Place in honor of five Hawaiian sailors who had perished in the sinking of the SS Aztec by German submarines. Her act was interpreted by many as her symbolic support of the United States.</p><br>
<p>The building was designed by the master carpenter Isaac Hart, who had built the first Iolani Palace. The building was also constructed by Daniel Jenner, an Italian master mason. The interior was originally finished by the master painter Israel Wright. Native Hawaiians were also involved with the construction of the building, but are not named individually by the archival records. Washington Place in Honolulu, was constructed with "open lānais" on all sides. (50 pages, including maps and photos) (Note: A similar-looking version at has just the first 23 pages.)</p><br>
<p>The foundation of the building, the lower level walls and the lower columns are constructed of coral stone. The upper floor is of wood frame construction. Washington Place conforms to period French Creole Greek Revival houses that were built along the lower Gulf-Coastal region of the southeastern United States. The home was constructed with an almost square core surrounded by a peristyle, a two tiered verandah, Tuscan columns on its upper floor, and a hipped roof. The interior of the home is arranged in a traditional Georgian floor plan, with four distinct parlors on the first floor and four bedchambers on the second floor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>William Little Lee made Washington Place his home from 1849&ndash;1854. Lee was instrumental in integrating a Western legal system in the Hawaiian Islands, based upon the Massachusetts model. Lee also authored the Great Mahele, which introduced private land ownership into Hawaiian culture.</p><br>
<p>Lydia Kamakaeha Pākī, the future Queen Liliuokalani and the Heir Apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii, married John Owen Dominis in 1862, making Washington Place the private residence of the princess and future queen. Another Massachusetts lawyer, Alfred S. Hartwell, rented a guest room from 1868 until 1872. He describes Mary as still expecting her husband to return any day.</p><br>
<p>Mary Dominis died on April 25, 1889, and John Owen Dominis died on August 27, 1891, leaving the property to Liliuokalani, who had just become Queen after the death of her brother, King Kalākaua.</p><br>
<h3>Arrest of the Queen</h3><br>
<p>During 1893, Washington Place was the site of the dramatic events of the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. It was there that the queen was arrested by the new governmental forces that were aided by a detachment of United States Marines. The queen was tried before a military tribunal, where she was charged with concealment of treason against the new government, the Republic of Hawaii. She was convicted and was confined for several months at Washington Place after her release from imprisonment at Iolani Palace.</p><br>
<p>Queen Liliuokalani resided at Washington Place for the remainder of her life. She died in the downstairs bedroom of the house on November 11, 1917. The home offers the citizens of Hawaii a strong sense of place and belonging in association with the kingdom and of Queen Liliuokalani&#39;s memory.</p><br>
<h3>Executive Mansion</h3><br>
<p>In her book, Hawaiis Story by Hawaiis Queen, Liliuokalani described the building as "a palatial dwelling" and a "choice tropical retreat in the midst of the chief city of the Hawaiian islands."</p><br>
<p>On May 14, 1921, the territorial legislature of Hawaii purchased Washington Place for $55,000 from the estate of Queen Liliuokalani to serve as the Executive Mansion of the Territorial Governor of Hawaii. It was remodeled in 1922 by Governor Wallace Rider Farrington. In all, it was the residence of twelve territorial and state governors of Hawaii. Technically, it was the residence of thirteen governors, because John Owen Dominis, Liliuokalani&#39;s consort, had been Governor of the island of Oahu from 1868 to 1891. The house served in this role until 2002, when it was converted into a historic house museum. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 18, 1973, and was designated a National Historic Landmark on March 29, 2007.</p><br>
<p>In 2008 a new Governor&#39;s residence was built behind the historic Washington Place, within its grounds, and continues to serve the same purpose.</p><br>
<p>Bear Mountain, is a prominent peak of the southern Taconic Mountains. It lies within the town of Salisbury, Connecticut, in the United States, and is the highest mountain summit in the state of Connecticut. The highest point in the state, however, is located on the south slope of Mount Frissell 1.3 mi to the west at 2,379 ft. Much of the mountain is protected as part of the viewshed and corridor of the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, which crosses the summit grounds. From the summit the view includes Twin Lakes and cultivated fields to the east, the Catskills and nearby Taconic peaks to the west, and Massachusetts Mount Everett and Mount Race to the north. Though the mountains elevation is commonly reported at 2316, the elevation near its stone monument tower, the proper summit lies approximately 125 feet northwest of the tower, accessible by a herd path following the mountains abandoned Bee Line Trail to the Northwest Camp owned by the Connecticut Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club. The mountain is noted for its old growth scrub forest of pitch pines, birch, oak and other short-statured trees, much like its neighbors, Mounts Everett and Race, for its numerous wild blueberry bushes which produce in late July and early August, and for its rattlesnakes, which in summer are sometimes seen sunning themselves on the mountain&#39;s numerous open rocks of mica, schist and gneiss.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A pyramidal stone tower was built on the peak in 1885. The current plaque which was originally on the now-demolished pyramid erroneously calls the peak the highest ground in Connecticut; it also overestimates the height of the peak. The pyramid and plaque as well as the identification of Bear Mountain as Connecticuts highest peak and misidentification as Connecticuts highest point are the work of Robbins Battell of Norfolk, Connecticut, who became convinced that the Encyclopædia Britannica was wrong in stating that there was no point in Connecticut over 1,000 ft above sea level, and had the Litchfield Hills surveyed.</p><br>
<p>Having identified Bear Mountain as the state&#39;s highest peak, Battell took out a long-term lease on the land and contracted with mason Owen Travis for a marker, to be visible from the surrounding district. Over the next three years, despite the lack of roads, Travis brought 350 tons of stone to the summit and constructed a pyramidal tower, 20 ft square at the base and 22 ft tall, tapering to 10 ft square at the top, building it in the fashion of old Connecticut stone fences, with no mortar. A lightning rod stood another 17 ft above the top of the tower.</p><br>
<p>Over the years, the tower deteriorated and began to collapse. Restoration was hampered by the lack of access by road. In 1972 a private donor had it restored and topped with a cement cap; shortly afterward, a group of Boy Scouts restored it once again; and finally in 1978, the eastern corner disintegrated and the tower completely collapsed, leaving the plaque in the ruins. From 1982 to 1983 a movement to have the state take over the site resulted in a decision not to rebuild the tower, and the ruins were stabilized and the plaque set into the rubble.</p><br>
<p>Grouseland, the William Henry Harrison Mansion and Museum, is a National Historic Landmark important for its architecture and role in history. Grouseland is a large, two-story red brick home built for William Henry Harrison in Vincennes, Indiana, during his term as Governor of the Indiana Territory. The mansion was completed in 1804 and reportedly dubbed Grouseland by William Henry Harrison due to the abundance of grouse in the area.</p><br>
<p>Grouseland was designed by the architect William Lindsay and constructed at great personal expense to Governor Harrison. The project was daunting: at the dawn of the 19th century, the territory had no established roads, and Vincennes itself had a population estimated at only 700. Nevertheless, Grouseland was built from local materials by skilled labor, and decorated in grand style with items imported from Europe. It is surmised by at least one biographer that Harrisons motives in constructing such a Xanadu in the wilderness included establishing the respect due to him as governor, despite his relative youth at the time. Grouseland served Harrisons position and marked his place in American aristocracy—William Henry was the youngest son of Benjamin Harrison, V, a signer of The Declaration of Independence.</p><br>
<p>During Harrison&#39;s governorship of the Indiana Territory, Grouseland was the focal point of the social and official life of the territory. As the capital of the Northwest Territory, more territory was governed from Vincennes than any city outside Washington, D.C. Grouseland was home to Harrison until 1812. It remained in the Harrison family until the late 1840s.</p><br>
<p>The mansion includes the council chamber where Harrison met with representatives from various American Indian tribes. In 1805, Harrison negotiated the Treaty of Grouseland with a number of important Indian leaders, including Little Turtle and Buckongahelas. Harrison had two confrontations with the Shawnee leader Tecumseh at Grouseland in 1810 and 1811 (see Tecumsehs War). Harrisons thirteen treaties with Native American leaders resulted in millions of acres of land being acquired by the United States.</p><br>
<p>Today, Grouseland is owned by the Daughters of the American Revolution who saved the building from destruction. It is overseen by the Grouseland Foundation, a volunteer board of directors composed of DAR and non-DAR members to manage the structure and programs. The main campus of Vincennes University is adjacent to the property, and other state historic buildings, such as the Territorial Capitol building, have been moved to the property. It is located in the Vincennes Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Vrachnaiika  is a town and a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Patras, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 32.111 km. It is suburb of a Patras, about 11 km southwest of the city centre, on the Gulf of Patras coast. The population of the town is around 2,700 and of the municipal unit around 4,600. The community has a disused rail station on the line from Patras to Pyrgos. The Greek National Road 9  passes south of the centre.</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Vrachnaiika is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Kaminia</p><br>
<p>Monodendri</p><br>
<p>Theriano</p><br>
<p>Tsoukalaiika</p><br>
<p>Vrachnaiika (Vrachnaiika, Dresthena, Moiraiika)</p><br>
<p>The Dubuque Star Brewery, located in Dubuque, Iowa, is a building that for many years made Dubuque Star beers. The brewery is located just north of the Ice Harbor in Dubuque.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dubuque Star was established by Joseph Rhomberg in 1898. Until the beginning of Prohibition, the brewery produced Dubuque Star beer. As with many other breweries, the Dubuque Star brewery was forced to close down. Before Prohibition, there were 138 breweries in the state, but afterwards Dubuque Star was the only small brewery left in the state.</p><br>
<p>With the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, the brewery was reopened. Because of its location near the Mississippi River, when the river flooded it would often cause problems for the brewery. The 1965 floods were particularly bad. The brewery operators made protective measures for the river reaching 23 feet, but the river soon reached 26 feet. This caused serious damage to the lower floors of the building, and the production equipment.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, Joseph Pickett purchased the brewery. He found that the brewery was not in good shape. Most of the equipment was outdated 1930s era equipment. The brewery had very low market share. Pickett began a massive renovation and modernization of the brewery.</p><br>
<p>Pickett introduced Pickett&#39;s Premium beer, which by the late 1970s accounted for about 12% of sales in the region. The hospitality room was featured in the movie F.I.S.T., as well as the 1981 comedy Take This Job and Shove It.</p><br>
<p>Agri Industries purchased the brewery in 1980. They produced Rhomberg Beer until 1985. The beers made by the brewery were technically superior products, but the company had a limited advertising budget, which resulted in limited public exposure. The efforts were not successful, and the brewery closed in 1985. There were a couple more attempts in the following years to reopen the brewery. However, despite making superior products, the efforts were again not successful, and the brewery was closed down in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Between 1988-1998 or thereabout, the brewery was operated by Zele Brewing Company management. A number of contract brewing were made and the brewery showed promise. However, this was a period when large breweries choke distribution and forced their distributors to abandon micro breweries or craft beers, "shake out period." This shake out period lasted between 1996-2003. During this period, Erlanger Beer Brand was owned by Stroh&#39;s and it was a licensed product. It also brewed a private label for TGIF chain which increased its production to about 25,000 barrels or more a year. It also brewed under joint ventures for Tuan Chau Tien, his brands. (www.paleale.com and www.beerguy.com)</p><br>
<p>The city of Dubuque acquired the building through eminent domain proceedings as part of the riverfront renovation efforts. Work began to renovate the brewery. Madison, Wisconsin based Alexander Company was brought in to redevelop the site, however they were unable to bring any tenants in for the brewery.</p><br>
<p>On March 23, 2006 it was announced that Stone Cliff Winery had signed an agreement with Port of Dubuque LLC to lease part of the brewery. This lease was contingent on the city and Port of Dubuque signing a development deal. Under the lease, Stone Cliff Winery leased 10,000 feet of the ground floor for an expanded winery and tasting center - which they opened in the summer of 2007. The Dubuque Star brewing company is owned and operated by Jeffery Monroe in Iowa City, Iowa.</p><br>
<p>In April, 2011, moved into the 3rd floor of the building.</p><br>
<p>As of 02/18/2013 The Star Restaurant, which was on the 2nd floor, is closed.</p><br>
<p>In 2014 moved into the 2nd floor of the building.</p><br>
<p>Lōihi Seamount  is an active submarine volcano about 35 km off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii. The top of the seamount is about 975 m below sea level. This seamount is on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest shield volcano on Earth. Lōihi, meaning "long" in Hawaiian, is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5,800 km northwest of Lōʻihi. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Lōʻihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development.</p><br>
<p>Lōihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000–100,000 years from now. At its summit, Lōʻihi Seamount stands more than 3,000 m above the seafloor, making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption. A diverse microbial community resides around Lōihi&#39;s many hydrothermal vents.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1996, a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōʻihi. This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history. The swarm altered 10 to 13 square kilometers of the seamounts summit; one section, Peles Vents, collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele&#39;s Pit. The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory (HUGO) provided real-time data on Lōʻihi between 1997 and 2002. Lōʻihi last erupted in 1996, before the earthquake swarm of that summer.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Lōʻihi is a seamount, or underwater volcano, on the flank of Mauna Loa, the Earth&#39;s largest shield volcano. It is the newest volcano created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain. The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Lōʻihi is about 80 km, which is, coincidentally, also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot.</p><br>
<p>Lōʻihi consists of a summit area with three pit craters, an 11 km long rift zone extending north from the summit, and a 19 km long rift zone extending south-southeast from the summit.</p><br>
<p>The summits pit craters are named West Pit, East Pit, and Peles Pit. Peles Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit. The walls of Peles Pit stand 200 m high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor, Peles Vent, a hydrothermal field near Lōʻihis summit, collapsed into a large depression. The thick crater walls of Pele&#39;s Pit—averaging 20 m in width, unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters—suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past.</p><br>
<p>Lōihis north–south trending rift zones create a distinctive elongated shape, from which the volcanos Hawaiian name, meaning "long", derives.</p><br>
<p>Until 1970, Lōihi was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea-floor spreading. The seafloor under Hawaii is 80–100 million years old and was created at the East Pacific Rise, an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle. New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center. Over a period of 80–100 million years, the sea floor under Hawaii moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location 6,000 km west, carrying ancient seamounts with it. When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaii in 1970, they discovered that Lōihi was an active member of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain.</p><br>
<p>Lōʻihi is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees. Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 1,900 m below sea level, but its southern base is a more substantial 4,755 m below the surface. Thus, the summit is 931 m above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank, but 3,786 m high when measured from the base of its southern flank.</p><br>
<p>Lōihi is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiian volcanoes. Geochemical evidence from Lōihi lavas indicates that Lōihi is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage, providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. In the preshield stage, Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity, producing an alkali basalt lava. Continued volcanism is expected to eventually create an island at Lōihi. Lōʻihi experiences frequent landslides; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes, and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face. Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. Lōʻihi is predicted to rise above the surface in 10,000 to 100,000 years.</p><br>
<h3>Age and growth</h3><br>
<p>Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Lōʻihi. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions, notably the 1978 expedition, which provided 17 dredge samples. Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin; the oldest dated rock is around 300,000 years old. Following the 1996 event, some young breccia was also collected. Based on the samples, scientists estimate Lōʻihi is about 400,000 years old. The rock accumulates at an average rate of 3.5 mm per year near the base, and 7.8 mm near the summit. If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Lōʻihi, 40% of the volcanos mass formed within the last 100,000 years. Assuming a linear growth rate, Lōihi is 250,000 years old. However, as with all hotspot volcanoes, Lōihis level of activity has increased with time; therefore, it would take at least 400,000 years for such a volcano to reach Lōihi&#39;s mass.</p><br>
<h2>Activity</h2><br>
<p>Lōihi is a young and fairly active volcano, although less active than nearby Kīlauea. In the past few decades, several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Lōihi, the largest of which are summarized in the table below. The volcanos activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity, which commenced in 1959. Most earthquake swarms at Lōihi have lasted less than two days; the two exceptions are the 1991–92 earthquake, lasting several months, and the 1996 event, which was shorter but much more pronounced. Both of the earthquakes followed a pattern of activity that began on the flank and migrated to the summit. The 1996 event was directly observed by an autonomous ocean bottom observatory (OBO), allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 6 km to 8 km below the summit, approximating to the position of Lōihis extremely shallow magma chamber.</p><br>
<p>The low-level seismic activity documented on Lōihi since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit. Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Lōihis rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions. This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes, each swarm comprising up to hundreds of earthquakes. The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit, though they follow a north–south trend. Rather, most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Lōʻihi. The largest recorded swarms took place on Lōihi in 1971, 1972, 1975, 1991–92 and 1996. The nearest seismic station is around 30 km from Lōʻihi, on the south coast of Hawaii. Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often, but their location cannot be determined precisely as it can for larger events. In fact, HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory), positioned on Lōihis flank, detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) seismic network.</p><br>
<h3>1996 earthquake swarm</h3><br>
<p>The largest amount of activity recorded for the Lōihi seamount was a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9, 1996.</p><br>
<p>The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a quick response cruise launched in August 1996. The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaii scientists, led by Frederick Duennebier, that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996. The scientists&#39; assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed. Follow-up expeditions to Lōʻihi took place, including a series of manned-submersible dives in August and September.</p><br>
<p>These were supplemented by a great deal of shore-based research.</p><br>
<p>Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA-funded research in September and October 1996. These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Lōʻihis summit had collapsed, a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano. A crater 1 km across and 300 m deep formed out of the rubble. The event involved the movement of 100 million cubic meters of volcanic material. A region of 10 to 13 km (4 to 5 sq mi) of the summit was altered and populated by bus-sized pillow lava blocks, precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater. "Peles Vents," an area on the southern side, previously considered stable, collapsed completely into a giant pit, renamed "Pele&#39;s Pit". Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region.</p><br>
<p>The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate. The sudden collapse of Pele&#39;s Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material. The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded 250 °C, a record for an underwater volcano. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid-ocean ridges. Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers.</p><br>
<p>The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift. Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there, and high lava columns were still standing upright. A new hydrothermal vent field (Naha Vents) was located in the upper-south rift zone, at a depth of 1,325 m.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity</h3><br>
<p>Lōʻihi has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004. The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there. USGS-ANSS (Advanced National Seismic System) reported two earthquakes, magnitudes 5.1 and 5.4, on May 13 and July 17. Both originated from a depth of 44 km. On April 23, a magnitude 4.3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately 33 km. Between December 7, 2005, and January 18, 2006, a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred, the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and 12 km to 28 km deep. Another earthquake measuring 4.7 was later recorded approximately midway between Lōihi and Pāhala (on the south coast of the Hawaii (Island)).</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<h3>Early work</h3><br>
<p>Expedition Timeline</p><br>
<p>Lōʻihi Seamounts first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940. At the time, the seamount was non-notable, being one of many in the region. A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952. That same year, geologist Gordon A. MacDonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano, similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Macdonalds hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot. However, because the earthquakes were oriented east–west (the direction of the volcanic fault) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount, Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption.</p><br>
<p>Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano, but without evidence the idea remained speculative. The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event, and was often mislabeled as an "older volcanic feature" in subsequent charts. The Hawaiian word lōʻihi means "long". In 1978, an expedition studied intense, repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Lōʻihi area. Rather than finding an old, extinct seamount, data collected revealed Lōʻihi to be a young, possibly active volcano. Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows. Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Lōʻihi&#39;s summit with the goal of studying whether Lōʻihi is active. Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was "fresh", yielding more evidence that Lōʻihi is still active. An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs, providing additional confirmation. Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater. This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot, which supplies Lōʻihi with magma.</p><br>
<p>Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Lōʻihi in 1991 to track earthquake swarms.</p><br>
<h3>1996 to present</h3><br>
<p>The bulk of information about Lōʻihi comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption. In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported, visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water. The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele&#39;s Pit (formed from the collapse of the old ones), and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents. They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory.</p><br>
<p>Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse. Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy, and dissolved minerals emanating from Lōʻihi. Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory, HURL&#39;s 2,000 m submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters, microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory (OBO) on the summit of Lōʻihi Seamount.</p><br>
<p>Since 2006, the Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO), funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program, has led cruises to Lōʻihi investigate its microbiology every October. The first cruise, on the ship R/V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2, lasted from September 22 to October 9. These cruises study the large number of Fe-oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Lōʻihi. Lōʻihi&#39;s extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO and Iron, while being low in sulfide. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Hydrothermal vent geochemistry</h3><br>
<p>Lōʻihis mid-Pacific location and its well-sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem. Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Lōʻihis crater floor and north slope,</p><br>
<h3>Microorganisms</h3><br>
<p>The vents lie 1,100 m to 1,325 m below the surface, and range in temperature from 10 to over 200 °C. The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of (up to 17 mM) and Fe (Iron), but low in sulfide. Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe (iron), one of the hallmark features of Lōʻihi. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in. An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans, sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles. Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved.</p><br>
<p>A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele&#39;s Pit.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), NOAA&#39;s Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific, monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community.</p><br>
<p>The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Lōʻihi in 1999. Microbial mats surrounded the 160 °C vents, and included a novel jelly-like organism. Samples were collected for study at NSF&#39;s Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center (MarBEC). In 2001, Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study.</p><br>
<p>NOAAs National Undersea Research Center and NSFs Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles.</p><br>
<h3>Macroorganisms</h3><br>
<p>Marine life inhabiting the waters around Lōʻihi is not as diverse as life at other, less active seamounts. Fish found living near Lōʻihi include the Celebes monkfish (Sladenia remiger), and members of the Cutthroat eel family, Synaphobranchidae. Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents, a bresiliid shrimp (Opaepele loihi) of the family Alvinocarididae (described in 1995), and a tube or pogonophoran worm. Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm, and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species.</p><br>
<p>From 1982 to 1992, researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Lōʻihi Seamount, Johnston Atoll, and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 m and 2,000 m. A small number of species identified at Lōʻihi were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi, including the Tassled coffinfish (Chaunax fimbriatus), and the Celebes monkfish.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shuksan is a glaciated massif in the North Cascades National Park. Shuksan rises in Whatcom County, Washington immediately to the east of Mount Baker, and 11.6 mi south of the Canada–US border. The mountain&#39;s name Shuksan is derived from the Lummi word, said to mean "high peak". The highest point on the mountain is a three sided peak known as Summit Pyramid.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is composed of Shuksan greenschist, oceanic basalt that was metamorphosed when the Easton terrane collided with the west coast of North America, approximately 120 million years ago. The mountain is an eroded remnant of a thrust plate formed by the Easton collision.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shuksan may be one of the most photographed mountains in the Cascade Range. Photographs with its reflection in Picture Lake near Mount Baker Ski Area are particularly common. The Mount Baker Highway, State Route 542, is kept open during the winter to support the ski area; in late summer, the road to Artist Point allows visitors to travel a few miles higher for a closer view of the peak.</p><br>
<p>Sulphide Creek Falls, one of the tallest waterfalls in North America, plunges off the southeastern flank of Mount Shuksan. There are four other tall waterfalls that spill off Mount Shuksan and neighboring Jagged Ridge and Seahpo Peak, mostly sourced from small snowfields and glaciers.</p><br>
<p>The traditional name of Mount Shuksan in the Nooksack language is Shéqsan ("high foot") or Ch’ésqen ("golden eagle").</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of Mount Shuksan is usually attributed to Asahel Curtis and W. Montelius Price on September 7, 1906. However, in a letter to the editor of the Mazamas club journal, C. E. Rusk attributed the first ascent to Joseph Morowits in 1897 and also stated that he would have attempted it in 1903 if he had not been sure that it had already been climbed.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby mountains</h2><br>
<p>Mount Triumph</p><br>
<p>Mount Despair</p><br>
<p>Mount Terror</p><br>
<p>Mount Blum</p><br>
<p>Mount Baker</p><br>
<p>Church Mountain</p><br>
<p>Ightham Mote , Ightham, Kent is a medieval moated manor house. The architectural writer John Newman describes it as "the most complete small medieval manor house in the county." Ightham Mote and its gardens are owned by the National Trust and are open to the public. The house is a Grade I listed building, and parts of it are a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>12th century-16th century</h3><br>
<p>The origins of the house date from circa 1340-1360. The earliest recorded owner is Sir Thomas Cawne, who was resident towards the middle of the 14th century. The house passed by the marriage of his daughter Alice to Nicholas Haute and their descendants, their grandson Richard Haute being Sheriff of Kent in the late 15th century. It was then purchased by Sir Richard Clement in 1521. In 1591, Sir William Selby bought the estate.</p><br>
<h3>16th century-late 19th century</h3><br>
<p>The house remained in the Selby family for nearly 300 years. Sir William was succeeded by his nephew, also Sir William, who is notable for handing over the keys of Berwick-upon-Tweed to James I on his way south to succeed to the throne. He married Dorothy Bonham of West Malling but had no children. The Selbys continued until the mid-19th century when the line faltered with Elizabeth Selby, the widow of a Thomas who disinherited his only son. During her reclusive tenure, Joseph Nash drew the house for his multi-volume illustrated history Mansions of England in the Olden Time, published in the 1840s. The house passed to a cousin, Prideaux John Selby, a distinguished naturalist, sportsman and scientist. On his death in 1867, he left Ightham to a daughter, Mrs Lewis Marianne Bigge. Her second husband, Robert Luard, changed his name to Luard-Selby. Ightam Mote was rented-out in 1887 to American Railroad magnate William Jackson Palmer and his family. For three years Ightham became a centre for the artists and writers of the Aesthetic Movement with visitors including John Singer Sargent, Henry James, and Ellen Terry. When Mrs Bigge died in 1889, the executors of her son Charles Selby-Bigge, a Shropshire land agent, put the house up for sale in July 1889.</p><br>
<h3>Late 19th century-21st century</h3><br>
<p>The Mote was purchased by Thomas Colyer-Fergusson. He and his wife brought up their six children at the Mote. In 1890-1891, he carried out much repair and restoration, which allowed the survival of the house after centuries of neglect. Ightham Mote was opened to the public one afternoon a week in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Sir Thomas Colyer-Fergusson&#39;s third son, Riversdale, died aged 21 in 1917 in the Third Battle of Ypres, and won a posthumous Victoria Cross. A wooden cross in the New Chapel is in his memory. The oldest brother, Max, was killed at the age of 49 in a bombing raid on an army driving school near Tidworth in 1940 during World War II. One of the three daughters, Mary (called Polly) married Walter Monckton.</p><br>
<p>On Sir Thomass death in 1951, the property and the baronetcy passed to Maxs son, James. The high costs of upkeep and repair of the house led him to sell the house and auction most of the contents. The sale took place in October 1951 and lasted three days. It was suggested that the house be demolished to harvest the lead on the roofs, or that it be divided into flats. Three local men purchased the house: William Durling, John Goodwin and John Baldock. They paid £5,500 for the freehold, in the hope of being able to secure the future of the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, Ightham Mote was purchased by Charles Henry Robinson, an American of Portland, Maine, United States. He had known the property when stationed nearby during the Second World War. He lived there for only fourteen weeks a year for tax reasons. He made many urgent repairs, and partly refurnished the house with 17th-century English pieces. In 1965, he announced that he would give Ightham Mote and its contents to the National Trust. He died in 1985 and his ashes were immured just outside the crypt. The National Trust took possession in that year.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the National Trust began an ambitious conservation project that involved dismantling much of the building and recording its construction methods before rebuilding it. During this process, the effects of centuries of ageing, weathering, and the destructive effect of the deathwatch beetle were highlighted. The project ended in 2004 after revealing numerous examples of structural and ornamental features which had been covered up by later additions.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and description</h2><br>
<p>Originally dating to around 1320, the building is important because it has most of its original features; successive owners effected relatively few changes to the main structure, after the completion of the quadrangle with a new chapel in the 16th century. Nikolaus Pevsner described it as "the most complete small medieval manor house in the county", and it remains an example that shows how such houses would have looked in the Middle Ages. Unlike most courtyard houses of its type, which have had a range demolished, so that the house looks outward, Nicholas Cooper observes that Ightham wholly surrounds its courtyard and looks inward, into it, offering little information externally. The construction is of "Kentish ragstone and dull red brick," the buildings of the courtyard having originally been built of timber and subsequently rebuilt in stone.</p><br>
<p>The house has more than 70 rooms, all arranged around a central courtyard, "the confines circumscribed by the moat." The house is surrounded on all sides by a square moat, crossed by three bridges. The earliest surviving evidence is for a house of the early 14th century, with the Great Hall, to which were attached, at the high, or dais end, the Chapel, Crypt and two Solars. The courtyard was completely enclosed by increments on its restricted moated site, and the battlemented tower was constructed in the 15th century. Very little of the 14th century survives on the exterior behind rebuilding and refacing of the 15th and 16th centuries.</p><br>
<p>The structures include unusual and distinctive elements, such as the porters squint, a narrow slit in the wall designed to enable a gatekeeper to examine a visitors credentials before opening the gate. An open loccia with a fifteenth-century gallery above, connects the main accommodations with the gatehouse range. The courtyard contains a large, 19th century dog kennel. The house contains two chapels; the New Chapel, of c.1520, having a barrel roof decorated with Tudor roses. Parts of the interior were remodelled by Richard Norman Shaw.</p><br>
<p>Mýrdalsjökull  mire dale glacier" or " mire valley glacier") is an ice cap in the south of Iceland. It is to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller ice cap Eyjafjallajökull. Between these two glaciers is Fimmvörðuháls pass. Its peak reaches 1,493 m in height and in 1980 it covered an area of 595 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The icecap of the glacier covers an active volcano called Katla. The caldera of the volcano has a diameter of 10 km and the volcano erupts usually every 40–80 years. The last eruption took place in 1918. Scientists are actively monitoring the volcano, particularly after the eruption of nearby Eyjafjallajökull began in April 2010. Since the year 930, 16 eruptions have been documented.</p><br>
<p>The Eldgjá, a volcanic eruption fissure about 30 km long, which erupted in the year 936, is part of the same volcanic system.</p><br>
<p>Before the Hringvegur (the main ring road round the island) was built, people feared traversing the plains in front of the volcano because of the frequent jökulhlaups (glacial floods) and the deep rivers to be crossed, although the road is still vulnerable to major events. Especially dangerous was the glacial flood after the eruption of 1918 when the coastline was extended by 5 km by laharic flood deposits.</p><br>
<p>Mýrdalsjökull is an exceedingly wet location, with models suggesting it receives more than 10 metres of precipitation annually.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull , , English Island Mountain Glacier, is one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland, north of Skógar and west of Mýrdalsjökull. The ice cap covers the caldera of a volcano with a summit elevation of 1,651 m. The volcano has erupted relatively frequently since the last glacial period, most recently in 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull consists of a volcano completely covered by an ice cap. The ice cap covers an area of about 100 km&sup2, feeding many outlet glaciers. The main outlet glaciers are to the north: Gígjökull, flowing into Lónið, and Steinholtsjökull, flowing into Steinholtslón. In 1967, there was a massive landslide on the Steinholtsjökull glacial tongue. On 16 January 1967 at 13:47:55 there was an explosion on the glacier. It can be timed because the seismometers at Kirkjubæjarklaustur monitored the movement. When about 15,000,000 m&sup3; of material hit the glacier a massive amount of air, ice, and water began to move out from under the glacier into the lagoon at the foot of the glacier.</p><br>
<p>The mountain itself, a stratovolcano, stands 1,651 m at its highest point, and has a crater 3 – in diameter, open to the north. The crater rim has three main peaks (clockwise from the north-east): Guðnasteinn, 1,500 m; Hámundur, 1,651 m; and Goðasteinn, 1,497 m. The south face of the mountain was once part of Iceland&#39;s coastline, from which, over thousands of years, the sea has retreated some 5 km. The former coastline now consists of sheer cliffs with many waterfalls, of which the best known is Skógafoss. In strong winds, the water of the smaller falls can even be blown up the mountain. The area between the mountain and the present coast is a relatively flat strand, 2 to 5 km wide, called Eyjafjöll.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name means "glacier" (or more properly here "ice cap") of the Eyjafjöll. The word jökull, meaning glacier or ice cap, is a cognate with the Middle English word ikel surviving in the -icle of English icicle.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjöll is the name given to the southern side of the volcanic massif together with the small mountains which form the foot of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The name Eyjafjöll is made up of the words eyja (genitive plural of ey, meaning eyot or island), and the plural word fjöll, meaning fells or mountains, and together literally means: "the mountains of the islands". The name probably refers to the close-by archipelago of Vestmannaeyjar.</p><br>
<p>The word fjalla is the genitive plural of fjöll, and so Eyjafjalla is the genitive form of Eyjafjöll and means: "of the Eyjafjöll".</p><br>
<p>A literal part-by-part translation of Eyjafjallajökull would thus be "Islands Mountains ice cap".</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull is sometimes referred to by the numeronym "E15".</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The stratovolcano, whose vents follow an east-west trend, is composed of basalt to andesite lavas. Most of its historical eruptions have been explosive. However, fissure vents occur on both (mainly the west) sides of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is fed by a magma chamber under the mountain, which in turn derives from the tectonic divergence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is part of a chain of volcanoes stretching across Iceland. Its nearest active neighbours are Katla, to the northeast, and Eldfell, on Heimaey, to the southwest.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is thought to be related to Katla geologically, in that eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have generally been followed by eruptions of Katla.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull erupted in the years 920 and 1612.</p><br>
<h3>1821 to 1823 eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Some damage was caused by a minor eruption in 1821. Notably, the ash released from the eruption contained a large fraction of fluoride, which in high doses may harm the bone structure of cattle, horses, sheep and humans. The eruption also caused some small and medium glacier runs and flooding in nearby rivers Markarfljót and Holtsá. The eruptive phase started on 19 and 20 December 1821 by a series of explosive eruptions and continued over the next several days. The sources describe heavy ash fall in the area around the volcano, especially to the south and west.</p><br>
<p>After that event the sequence of eruptions continued on a more subdued level until June 1822.</p><br>
<p>From the end of June until the beginning of August 1822, another sequence of explosive eruptions followed. The eruption columns were shot to considerable heights, with ashfall in both the far north of the country, in Eyjafjörður, and in the southwest, on the peninsula of Seltjarnarnes near Reykjavík.</p><br>
<p>The period from August to December 1822 seemed quieter, but farmers attributed the death of cattle and sheep in the Eyjafjörður area to poisoning from this eruption, which modern analysis identifies as fluoride poisoning. Some small glacier runs occurred in the river Holtsá. A bigger one flooded the plains near the river Markarfljót. (The sources do not indicate the exact date.).</p><br>
<p>In 1823, some men went hiking up on Eyjafjallajökull to inspect the craters. They discovered a fissure vent near the summit caldera a bit to the west of Guðnasteinn.</p><br>
<p>In early 1823, the nearby volcano Katla under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap erupted and at the same time steam columns were seen on the summit of Eyjafjallajökull.</p><br>
<p>The ash of Eyjafjallajökull’s 1821 eruptions is to be found all over the south of Iceland. It is dark grey in colour, small-grained and intermediate rock containing about 28–40% silicon dioxide.</p><br>
<h3>2010 eruptions</h3><br>
<p>On 26 February 2010, unusual seismic activity along with rapid expansion of the Earth&#39;s crust was registered by the Meteorological Institute of Iceland. This gave geophysicists evidence that magma was pouring from underneath the crust into the magma chamber of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano and that pressure stemming from the process caused the huge crustal displacement at Þorvaldseyri farm. In March 2010, almost three thousand small earthquakes were detected near the volcano, all having a depth of 7 –. The seismic activity continued to increase and from 3–5 March, close to 3,000 earthquakes were measured at the epicenter of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The eruption is thought to have begun on 20 March 2010, about 8 km east of the top crater of the volcano, on Fimmvörðuháls, the high neck between Eyjafjallajökull and the neighbouring icecap, Mýrdalsjökull. This first eruption, in the form of a fissure vent, did not occur under the glacier and was smaller in scale than had been expected by some geologists. The fissure opened on the north side of Fimmvörðuháls, directly across the popular hiking trail between Skógar, south of the pass, and Þórsmörk, immediately to the north.</p><br>
<p>On 14 April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull resumed erupting after a brief pause, this time from the top crater in the centre of the glacier, causing jökulhlaup (meltwater floods) to rush down the nearby rivers, and requiring 800 people to be evacuated. As of August 2010, Eyjafjallajökull was considered dormant.</p><br>
<h3>Relationship to Katla</h3><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull lies 25 km west of another subglacial volcano, Katla, under the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap, which is much more active and known for its powerful subglacial eruptions and its large magma chamber. Each of the eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in 920, 1612, and 1821–1823 has preceded an eruption of Katla. Katla did not display any unusual activity (such as expansion of the crust or seismic activity) during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, though geologists have been concerned about the general instability of Katla since 1999. Some geophysicists in Iceland believe that the Eyjafjallajökull eruption may trigger an eruption of Katla, which would cause major flooding due to melting of glacial ice and send up massive plumes of ash. On 20 April 2010, Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close...we have prepared...it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".</p><br>
<p>Volcanologists continue to monitor Katla, aware that any eruption from Katla following an eruption from Eyjafjallajökull has historically occurred within months of an Eyjafjallajökull eruption. The Icelandic Meteorological Office updates its website with reports of quakes at both Eyjafjallajökull and Katla. On 8 July 2011 there was a jökulhlaup that destroyed a bridge on the Ring Road and caused cracks to appear on Katla&#39;s glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>James May drove a Toyota Hilux up the volcano in a 2010 episode of the television show Top Gear. He reached the summit mere hours before the eruption happened, although May and the camera crew had left the volcano by the time the eruption started.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull was featured in the 2013 version of the movie, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull is featured as one of the natural wonders in the computer game Civilization VI.</p><br>
<p>Eyjafjallajökull was featured in a lyric, performed by MF DOOM, in JJ DOOMs song Guvnor off of the album Key to the Kuffs released in 2012.</p><br>
<p>Kerlingarfjöll is a 1,477 m) tall mountain range in Iceland situated in the Highlands of Iceland near the Kjölur highland road. They are part of a large tuya volcano system of 100 km&sup2;. The volcanic origin of these mountains is evidenced by the numerous hot springs and rivulets in the area, as well as red volcanic rhyolite stone the mountains are composed of. Minerals that have emerged from the hot springs also color the ground yellow, red and green.</p><br>
<p>The area was formerly known for its summer ski resort, but this was dismantled in 2000. From 2000 Kerlingarfjöll have been operated as a highland resort, offering accommodation and food services to the guests in the area.</p><br>
<p>It was on March 17 in 2017 that the Iceland Monitor wrote that Kerlingarfjöll Mountains and geothermal area were being turned into a nature reserve. Although parts of the place already had protection, after made into reserve, all the whole 367 square kilometres are to be under the protection of the state of Iceland. Earlier, there had been thoughts of using the 140 degree Celsius hot springs as a geothermal power plant. It had already been popular of course with hiking and the tourists</p><br>
<p>Krafla is a caldera of about 10 km in diameter with a 90 km long fissure zone, in the north of Iceland in the Mývatn region. Its highest peak reaches up to 818 m and it is 2 km in depth. There have been 29 reported eruptions in recorded history.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Krafla includes the crater Víti, one of two well-known craters by this name in Iceland (the other is in Askja). The Icelandic word "víti" means "hell". In former times, people often believed hell to be under volcanoes. Víti has a green lake inside of it.</p><br>
<p>South of the Krafla area, but not actually within the caldera is Námafjall, a mountain, beneath which is Hverir, a geothermal area with boiling mudpools and steaming fumaroles.</p><br>
<p>The Mývatn fires occurred between 1724–1729, when many of the fissure vents opened up. The lava fountains could be seen in the south of the island and a lava flow destroyed three farms near the village of Reykjahlíð, although nobody was harmed.</p><br>
<p>Between 1975 and 1984 there was a volcanic episode within the Krafla volcano. It involved nine volcanic eruptions and fifteen uplift and subsidence events. This interrupted some of the Krafla drillfields. During these events a large magma chamber emerged. This has been identified by analysing the seismic activity.</p><br>
<p>Since 1977 the Krafla area has been the source of the geothermal energy used by a 60 MWe power station. A survey undertaken in 2006 indicated very high temperatures at depths of between 3 and 5 kilometres and these favourable conditions have led to the development of the first well from the Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP), that found magma only 2.1 km deep.</p><br>
<h2>Photogallery</h2><br>
<p>Krafla.jpgKrafla volcanic area</p><br>
<p>Lava flow at Krafla, 1984.jpgLava flow during a rift eruption at Krafla, 1984</p><br>
<p>Lava_ropes_krafla.jpgLava ropes at Krafla, June 2007</p><br>
<p>Krafla_steams.jpgSteams at Krafla, June 2007</p><br>
<p>Krafla_Sulfur.jpgSulfur deposits at Krafla, June 2007</p><br>
<p>Krafla_generalview2007.jpgA general view of Krafla, June 2007</p><br>
<p>Mudpot22.jpgMudpots at Hverir, Námafjall, August 2008</p><br>
<p>Lava at Vulkan Krafla Iceland 4.JPGLava at Krafla</p><br>
<p>Krafla area.JPGKrafla area</p><br>
<p>Krafla landscape.JPGBoiling mudpools</p><br>
<p>Viti Crater 21.05.2008 15-31-42.JPGVíti crater and lake</p><br>
<p>Katla is a large volcano in southern Iceland. It is very active; twenty eruptions have been documented between 930 and 1918, at intervals of 13–95 years. It has not erupted violently for years, although there may have been small eruptions that did not break the ice cover, including ones in 1955, and 2011.</p><br>
<p>Prior eruptions have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of between 4 and 6 on a scale of 0 to 8. In comparison, the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption had a VEI-4. The bigger VEI-6 eruptions are comparable to Mount Pinatubo&#39;s 1991 eruption.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and physical appearances</h2><br>
<p>Katla is one of the largest volcanoes in Iceland. It is situated to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller glacier Eyjafjallajökull. Its peak reaches 1,512 m and is partially covered by the Mýrdalsjökull glacier. The system has an area of 595 km&sup2;. The Eldgjá canyon is part of the same volcanic system.</p><br>
<p>The caldera of the Katla volcano has a diameter of 10 km and is covered with 200 – of ice. The volcano normally erupts every 40–80 years. The flood discharge at the peak of an eruption in 1755 has been estimated at 200,000–400,000 m/s (7.1–14.1 million cu ft/sec), comparable to the combined average discharge of the Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, and Yangtze rivers (about 266,000 m/s (9.4 million cu ft/sec)).</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Katla derives from the word ketill ("kettle"), referring to the form of the volcano. Katla is also used as a female first name.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistoric activity</h2><br>
<p>It is thought that Katla is the source of Vedde Ash, more than 6 to 7 km3 of tephra dated to 10,600 years BP found at a number of sites including Vedde in Norway, Denmark, Scotland and North Atlantic cores.</p><br>
<h2>Historic activity</h2><br>
<p>Sixteen eruptions have been recorded for Katla since 930. The last major eruption started on 12 October 1918 and lasted for 24 days. It was likely a VEI-5 level eruption. The 1918 eruption resulted in extending the southern coast by 5 km due to laharic flood deposits. Its present dormancy is among the longest in known history.</p><br>
<p>Minor (VEI-1?) eruptions occurred in:</p><br>
<p>Most of these eruptions resulted in glacial floods. The severe fissure eruption in 934 was one of the largest lava eruptions in the past 10,000 years. Before the Hringvegur (Iceland&#39;s Ring Road) was constructed in 1974, people feared traversing the plains in front of the volcano because of the frequent jökulhlaup (or glacier bursts) and the deep river crossings. Especially dangerous was the glacier outburst that followed the eruption of 1918.</p><br>
<h2>Present day activity</h2><br>
<p>Katla has been showing signs of unrest since 1999, and geologists have concerns that it might erupt in the near future. Particularly, monitoring has been intensified following the March 2010 eruptions of a smaller neighbouring volcano, the Eyjafjallajökull glacier. The eruption of this nearby long-dormant volcano in March and April 2010 prompted fears among some geophysicists that it might trigger an eruption at the larger and more dangerous Katla. In the past 1,000 years, all three known eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have triggered subsequent Katla eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Following the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruptions, on 20 April 2010 Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close... we have prepared... it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over Europe and the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".</p><br>
<p>Increased earthquake activity has been noticed on Katla since the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull, but no other signs of an imminent eruption have been observed. These quakes are located mainly on the northwestern rim of the caldera. On 9 October 2010, a sudden rise in harmonic tremor was observed in the stations around Katla, a sign of a possible impending eruption.</p><br>
<h3>2011 activity</h3><br>
<p>In 2011, geologic activity led many to speculate that a very small subglacial eruption had taken place. In June 2011, harmonic tremor was again detected at Katla volcano. A few days later, an earthquake swarm took place in the caldera, indicating magma movement inside the volcano, leading to increased fears of an eruption in the near future.</p><br>
<p>On 8 and 9 July, another spike in harmonic tremors occurred, as a small eruption of Katla took place. Cracks formed on the Glacier, as well as a cauldron. Icelandic media reported a small subglacial eruption might have started. On the morning of 9 July, a glacier flood was reported in the river Múlakvísl, and also later in the river Skálm. The bridge across Múlakvísl was destroyed as well as other parts of the road, Route 1, on the Icelandic ring road. Helicopter pilots flying over the glacier also reported cracks in the glacier. Scientists monitoring the activity said speculation that it was caused by a "very small" subglacial eruption lacked confirmation by visual or seismic evidence.</p><br>
<h3>2016 and 2017 activity</h3><br>
<p>Tremors were detected under Katla in late August 2016.</p><br>
<p>A "Specialist Description" describing the activity on the 29 August noted that:</p><br>
<p>There was "a seismic swarm in Mýrdalsjökull on the 29th of August with two events in the northern Katla caldera rim measured at magnitude 4.5. These are the biggest earthquakes in Katla volcano since 1977. Earthquake eruption checks confirmed that most earthquakes occurred between 0:40 and 1:50 PM. The big earthquakes were about thirty seconds apart at 1:47. They were followed by more than 50 aftershocks until 15:12 PM, when there was an earthquake of magnitude 3.3 and then the cycle and seismic activity in the region reduced again. No unrest was measured along these earthquakes. The geothermal has decreased in the following week and is now negligible."</p><br>
<p>Update Written by a specialist at 11 Sep 16:38 GMT</p><br>
<p>"Today, shortly before 14:00, a small earthquake swarm began in Mýrdalsjökull. The largest earthquakes of the swarm were of magnitude 3.3 and 3.0 at 16:12 and 15:57. More than 10 smaller earthquakes were detected in the swarm. All of the earthquakes were shallow and located in the caldera of Katla volcano. It is not unusual for seismic swarms of this type to occur in this area."</p><br>
<p>In February 2017, seismic activity at the volcano continued.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Honolulu Harbor, also called &#39;Kulolia&#39; and &#39;Ke Awa O Kou&#39;, is the principal seaport of Honolulu and the State of Hawaii in the United States. It is from Honolulu Harbor, that the City & County of Honolulu was developed and urbanized, in an outward fashion, over the course of the modern history of the island of Oahu.</p><br>
<h2>Statistics</h2><br>
<p>Honolulu Harbor is administered by the Hawaii State Department of Transportation Harbors Division. Honolulu Harbor handles over 11 million tons of cargo annually. The services that the harbor provides are crucial as Hawaii imports over eighty percent of its required goods.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological surveys show that the area around Honolulu Harbor was bustling with human activity prior to 1100. The first European vessel to enter Honolulu Harbor was a long-boat from the British merchant ship King George. The boat rowed into the harbor on December 12, 1786, commanded by a Mr. Hayward and piloted by Towanooha, servant of a friendly Hawaiian priest. In 1794, Butterworth, a British ship commanded by Captain William Brown, entered the harbor by "warping" in. The crew dubbed it "Browns Harbor" to their captains dismay. Captain Brown insisted that the harbor be called "Fair Haven", which is synonymous with the Hawaiian name Honolulu.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Kamehameha III declared Honolulu to be the official capital of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. With the proclamation came a series of investments to further develop the harbor to accommodate more vessels. Honolulu Harbor quickly became the chief port of call for the trans-Pacific sandalwood, fur and whaling industries. Foreign vessels that docked at Honolulu Harbor poured vast amounts of wealth into the kingdom&#39;s coffers and provided for the well-being of native Hawaiians. The British subsequently built a fort to protect the entrance to the harbor. As the downtown waterfront was developed and the many high-rises along the waterfront were constructed, early artifacts such as poi pounders, fishing lures and even human remains were unearthed along the current waterfront and along the docks near the Aloha Tower adjacent to Alakea Street and Nimitz Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Aloha Tower</h2><br>
<p>On September 11, 1926, after five years of construction, the world-famous Aloha Tower was officially dedicated at Pier 9 of Honolulu Harbor. The tallest building in Hawaii at that time, the Aloha Tower became a guiding beacon welcoming vessels to Honolulu. Just as the Statue of Liberty greeted thousands of immigrants each year to New York City, the Aloha Tower greeted thousands of immigrants to Honolulu. By the time the Aloha Tower was dedicated, Honolulu was already a popular vacation destination for wealthy American and European families. They traveled on Matson steamers that docked at the Aloha Tower and were greeted by Hawaiian music, hula performers and lei.</p><br>
<p>When the attack on Pearl Harbor came on December 7, 1941, Coast Guardsmen from the USCGC Taney were ordered to take up defensive positions around Aloha Tower. The Aloha Tower was painted in camouflage colors so as to disappear at night.</p><br>
<h2>Recent developments</h2><br>
<p>In 1982, the Hawaii Maritime Center was opened near the Aloha Tower in an old royal pier to present the history of Honolulu Harbor and the relative industries it served. Falls of Clyde, a historic merchant ship, is docked at the royal pier. In 2002, the Hawaii Maritime Center became an incorporated institution of the Bishop Museum. In 1994, the Aloha Tower Marketplace opened making Honolulu Harbor the only harbor in the nation to combine a visitor attraction, retail and restaurant outlets, and working commercial harbor facilities at a single location.</p><br>
<h2>Resources</h2><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>The Moana Hotel is a historic hotel building on the island of Oahu, at 2365 Kalākaua Avenue in Honolulu, Hawaii. Built in the late 19th century as the first hotel in Waikiki, the Moana opened in 1901. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The building is currently part of the resort complex known as Moana Surfrider, A Westin Resort & Spa.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Moana Hotel</h3><br>
<p>The wealthy Honolulu landowner Walter Chamberlain Peacock, in an effort to establish a fine resort in the previously neglected Waikiki area of Honolulu, incorporated the Moana Hotel Company in 1896. Working with a design by architect Oliver G. Traphagen and $150,000 in capital, The Lucas Brothers contractors completed the structure in 1901. Construction of The Moana marked the beginning of tourism in Waikiki, becoming the first hotel amidst the bungalows and beach houses. In Hawaiian, moana means open sea or ocean.</p><br>
<p>The Moana&#39;s architecture was influenced by European styles popular at the time, with Ionic columns and intricate woodwork and plaster detailing throughout the building. The Moana was designed with a grand porte cochere on the street side and wide lānais on the ocean side. Some of the 75 guest rooms had telephones and bathrooms (unusual at the time), and the hotel featured a billiard room, saloon, main parlor, reception area, and library. Peacock installed the first electric-powered elevator in the islands at the Moana, which is still in use today. Design features of the original structure that survive to this day include extra-wide hallways (to accommodate steamer trunks), high ceilings, and cross-ventilation windows (to cool the rooms prior to air conditioning).</p><br>
<p>The Moana officially opened on March 11, 1901. Its first guests were a group of Shriners, who paid $1.50 per night for their rooms. Peacock did not find success with his endeavor and sold the hotel on May 2, 1905 to Alexander Young, a prominent businessman with other hotel holdings. After Young died in 1910, his Territorial Hotel Company operated the hotel until they went bankrupt in the Great Depression, and the Matson Navigation Company bought the property in 1932 for $1.6 million.</p><br>
<p>The Moana grew along with the popularity of Hawaiian tourism. Two floors were added in 1918, along with Italian Renaissance-styled concrete wings on each side of the hotel, creating its H-shape seen today.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the hotel was known as the Moana-Seaside Hotel & Bungalows. The bungalows were additional buildings constructed on the large plot of land directly across Kalakaua Avenue where the ʻĀinahau estate of Princess Kaʻiulani had been located.</p><br>
<p>The hotel&#39;s outward appearance was altered slightly over the years, including "updates" to such designs as Art Deco in the 1930s and Bauhaus in the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>From 1935 to 1975, the Moana&#39;s courtyard hosted the Hawaii Calls live radio broadcast. Legend has it that listeners mistook the hiss of the radio transmission as the waves breaking on the beach. When learning of this, the host instructed the sound man to run down to the waterfront to actually record the sound, which became a staple of the show.</p><br>
<p>In 1952, Matson built a new hotel adjacent to the Moana on the southeast side, called the SurfRider Hotel. In 1953, Matson demolished the Moana&#39;s bungalows across the street and, two years later, opened the new Princess Kaiulani Hotel on the site. Matson sold all of their Waikiki hotel properties to the Sheraton Company in 1959.</p><br>
<p>Sheraton sold the Moana and the SurfRider to Japanese industrialist Kenji Osano and his Kyo-Ya Company in 1963, though Sheraton continued to manage them. In 1969, Kyo-Ya built a towering new hotel on the Moana&#39;s northwest side. They named it the Surfrider Hotel. The older SurfRider Hotel on the other side was turned into part of the Moana, named the Diamond Head Wing.</p><br>
<h3>Moana Surfrider</h3><br>
<p>In 1989, a $50 million restoration (designed by Hawaii architect Virginia D. Murison) restored the Moana to its 1901 appearance and incorporated the 1969 Sheraton Surfrider Hotel and the 1952 SurfRider Hotel buildings with the 1901 Moana Hotel building into one beachfront resort, the Sheraton Moana Surfrider. The new resort included 793 rooms (including 46 suites), a freshwater swimming pool, three restaurants, a beach bar and a poolside snack bar. The property has been recognized with the President&#39;s Historic Preservation Award, the National Preservation Honor Award, the Hawaii Renaissance Award, and the Hotel Sales and Marketing Association International Golden Bell Award. The main historic section of the hotel, The Banyan Wing, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The hotel was the base of operations for about 24 White House staffers who accompanied President Barack Obama to his Winter White House at Plantation Estate during Christmas visits.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Starwood Hotels & Resorts, the management company of the Moana, rebranded the hotel from a Sheraton Hotel to a Westin Hotel. The name of the hotel became Moana Surfrider, A Westin Resort & Spa. The 1901 wing is now known as the Historic Banyan Wing. The low-rise 1952 SurfRider Hotel building is today the Diamond Wing. The 1969 Surfrider Hotel building is now called the Tower Wing.</p><br>
<h2>The banyan tree</h2><br>
<p>In the center of the Moana Surfrider&#39;s courtyard stands a large banyan tree. The Indian banyan tree was planted in 1904 by Jared Smith, Director of the Department of Agriculture Experiment Station. When planted, the tree was nearly seven feet tall and about seven years old. It now stands 75 feet high and spans 150 feet across the courtyard.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, the historic tree was one of the first to be listed on Hawaii&#39;s Rare and Exceptional Tree List. It has also been selected by the Board of Trustees of the America the Beautiful Fund as the site for a Hawaii Millennium Landmark Tree designation, which selects one historic tree in each state for protection in the new millennium.</p><br>
<h2>Hotel lore</h2><br>
<h3>Rich and famous</h3><br>
<p>As soon as the Moana Hotel opened, a non-stop flood of tourists from the mainland United States poured through its doors. Its most famous guest came in 1920. The Prince of Wales, who would later become King Edward VIII, gallivanted around the Moana Hotel property and reportedly fell in love with the private pier, from which he frequently dove into the ocean.</p><br>
<p>In August 1922, author Agatha Christie and her husband, Colonel Archie Christie, stayed on holiday. They were traveling around the world as part of the Dominion Mission of the British Empire Exhibition, promoting the exhibition to be held in England in 1924.</p><br>
<p>Duke Kahanamoku, the legendary Olympic swimmer and popularizer of the sport of surfing, frequented the Moana Hotel restaurants and private beachfront. The Moana Hotel became a favorite stomping ground for Kahanamoku&#39;s famed group, dubbed the Waikīkī Beach Boys.</p><br>
<h3>Murder mystery</h3><br>
<p>In 1905, the Moana Hotel was at the center of one of America&#39;s legendary mysteries. Jane Stanford, co-founder of Stanford University and former wife of California Governor Leland Stanford, died in a Moana Hotel room of poisoning.</p><br>
<p>An account of the events says that on the evening of February 28 at the hotel, Stanford had asked for bicarbonate of soda to settle her stomach. Her personal secretary, Bertha Berner, prepared the solution, which Stanford drank. At 11:15 p.m., Stanford cried out for her servants and Moana Hotel staff to fetch a physician, declaring that she had lost control of her body. Robert W. P. Cutler, who wrote the book The Mysterious Death of Jane Stanford recounted what took place upon the arrival of the Moana Hotel physician, Dr. Francis Howard Humphris:</p><br>
<p>As Humphris tried to administer a solution of bromine and chloral hydrate, Mrs. Stanford, now in anguish, exclaimed, "My jaws are stiff. This is a horrible death to die." Whereupon she was seized by a tetanic spasm that progressed relentlessly to a state of severe rigidity: her jaws clamped shut, her thighs opened widely, her feet twisted inwards, her fingers and thumbs clenched into tight fists, and her head drew back. Finally, her respiration ceased.</p><br>
<p>Stanford was dead from strychnine poisoning; the identity of whoever killed her remains a mystery.</p><br>
<p>The Kerikeri River rises in the Puketi Forest inland from Kerikeri and flows into the western extremity of the Bay of Islands in northern New Zealand. A 7 km long stream flowing into Raglan Harbour in Waikato also has the same name but it is unofficial.</p><br>
<p>Slightly less than 20 km long, the Northland river is hardly a significant waterway, but because it terminates at one of the most important historic sites in the country, the Stone Store Basin, it is known to countless thousands of tourists who visit Kerikeri each year.</p><br>
<p>The freshwater river falls over a ford into the Pacific Ocean, in the upper extremity of Kerikeri Inlet, a northwestern arm of the Bay. The ford replaced a bridge which crossed at that point for decades, but which needed to be demolished to protect Kerikeri&#39;s historic buildings in the basin.</p><br>
<p>A replacement bypass bridge was constructed several hundred metres upstream and opened in 2008. A pedestrian bridge was constructed around 2010, 200 m upstream from the ford.</p><br>
<p>The area is one of the most visited tourist destinations in the country, because of its history and photogenic buildings. The Stone Store was built in 1832 and is the oldest stone building extant in New Zealand. Adjacent is the Mission House, previously known as "Kemp House", which was built in 1822 and is the oldest surviving wooden house in Australia and New Zealand. Behind, up a hill, is St James&#39; Church which has been on the site since 1829 (although in its current form only since 1878).</p><br>
<p>Part of the history of the river is that it was used by chief Hongi Hika whose Kororipo Pa is about 100 m across the basin from the ford. Hongi used the river and tracks beside it to commute to Kororipo, his coastal pa, which played a significant part in the historic Musket Wars.</p><br>
<p>A popular walking track from the basin leads about five kilometres to the river’s spectacular Rainbow Falls. One of the first hydroelectric power stations in New Zealand was constructed on the river, and remains of it can be seen from the track.</p><br>
<p>Rehov , meaning "broad", "wide place", was an important Bronze and Iron Age city located at Tel Rehov , an archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, Israel, approximately 5 km south of Beit She&#39;an and 3 km west of the Jordan River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site represents one of the largest ancient city mounds in Israel, its surface area comprising 120,000 sqm in size, divided into an "Upper City" (40,000 sqm) and a "Lower City" (80,000 sqm). The oldest known archaeological finds relating to beekeeping were discovered at Rehov. Rehov was a joint Israelite-Canaanite city, and had an estimated population of 2,000.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations have been conducted at Rehov since 1997 under the directorship of Amihai Mazar, Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and with the primary sponsorship of John Camp.</p><br>
<p>Iron Age II levels of the site have emerged as a vitally important component in the current debate regarding the chronology of the United Monarchy of Israel. Important data has also been forthcoming regarding the Early Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age and medieval occupation of the site.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the team reported the discovery of a building that might have been the house of Elisha the prophet.</p><br>
<h3>Ancient beehives</h3><br>
<p>In September 2007 it was reported that 30 intact beehives and the remains of 100-200 more dated to the mid-10th century BCE to the early 9th century BCE were found by archaeologists in the ruins of Rehov. The beehives were evidence of an advanced honey-producing beekeeping (apiculture) industry 3000 years ago in the city, then thought to have a population of about 2000 residents at that time, both Israelite and Canaanite. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in orderly rows of 100 hives. Previously, references to honey in ancient texts of the region (such as the phrase "land of milk and honey" in the Hebrew Bible) were thought to refer only to honey derived from dates and figs; the discoveries show evidence of commercial production of bee honey and beeswax.</p><br>
<p>In addition to beehives, the remains of bees and bee larvae and pupae were also found. In 2010, using DNA from the remains of bees found at the site, researchers identified the bees as a subspecies, similar to the Anatolian bee, found now only in Turkey. It is possible that the bees&#39; range has changed, but more likely that the inhabitants of Tel Rehov imported bees because they were less aggressive than the local bees and provided a better honey yield (three to eight times higher than Israel’s native bees).</p><br>
<p>Supporting archaeological knowledge include evidence of other imports in Rehov from eastern Mediterranean lands; later Egyptian documentation of transferring bees in large pottery vases or portable beehives; and an Assyrian stele from the 8th century BCE that evidences that bees had been brought from the Taurus Mountains of southern Turkey to the land of Suhu - about the same distance as between the Taurus and Rehov (400 km).</p><br>
<p>The beehives were dated by carbon-14 radiocarbon dating at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, using organic material (wheat found next to the beehives).</p><br>
<p>Ezra Marcus of the University of Haifa, said the finding was a glimpse of ancient beekeeping seen in Near Eastern texts and ancient art. Religious practice was evidenced by an altar decorated with fertility figurines found alongside the hives.</p><br>
<h3>Ancient synagogue</h3><br>
<p>Along with the remains of an ancient synagogue, the archaeologists found a seventh-century inscription, part of a mosaic pavement, that contains details of Jewish religious laws concerning tithes and the Sabbatical Year. It was discovered on the lands of Kibbutz Ein HaNetziv.</p><br>
<p>Bubastis , also known in Arabic as Tell-Basta or in Egyptian as Per-Bast, was an Ancient Egyptian city. It was the capital of its own nome, located along the River Nile in the Delta region of Lower Egypt. Bubastis is often identified with the biblical Pi-Beseth .</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name of Bubastis in Egyptian is Pr-Bȝśt.t, typically transcribed Per-Bast. PR means "house" and the second word is the name of the goddess Bast or Bastet. The phrase means "House of Bast". In Bohairic Coptic, the name is rendered Ⲡⲟⲩⲃⲁⲥϯ, Ⲡⲟⲩⲁⲥϯ or Ⲃⲟⲩⲁⲥϯ.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Bubastis served as the capital of the nome of Am-Khent, the Bubastite nome, the 18th nome of Lower Egypt. Bubastis was situated southwest of Tanis, upon the eastern side of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. The nome and city of Bubastis were allotted to the Calasirian division of the Egyptian war-caste.</p><br>
<p>It became a royal residence after Shoshenq I, the first ruler and founder of the 22nd dynasty, became pharaoh in 943 BC. Bubastis was its height during this dynasty and the 23rd. It declined after the Persian conquest by Cambyses II in 525 BC, which heralded the end of the Saite 26th dynasty and the start of the Achaemenid dynasty.</p><br>
<p>The Twenty Second Dynasty of Egyptian monarchs consisted of nine, or, according to Eusebius of three Bubastite kings, and during their reigns the city was one of the most considerable places in the Delta. Immediately to the south of Bubastis were the allotments of land with which Psammetichus rewarded the services of his Ionian and Carian mercenaries; and on the northern side of the city commenced the canal which Pharaoh Necho II began (but never finished) to go between the Nile and the Red Sea. After Bubastis was taken by the Persians, its walls were dismantled. From this period it gradually declined, although it appears in ecclesiastical annals among the episcopal sees of the province Augustamnica Secunda. Bubastite coins of the age of Hadrian exist.</p><br>
<p>The following is the description which Herodotus gives of Bubastis, as it appeared shortly after the period of the Persian invasion, 525 BC, and Hamilton remarks that the plan of the ruins remarkably warrants the accuracy of this historical eye-witness.</p><br>
<p>"Temples there are more spacious and costlier than that of Bubastis, but none so pleasant to behold. It is after the following fashion. Except at the entrance, it is surrounded by water: for two canals branch off from the river, and run as far as the entrance to the temple: yet neither canal mingles with the other, but one runs on this side, and the other on that. Each canal is a hundred feet wide, and its banks are lined with trees. The propylaea are sixty feet in height, and are adorned with sculptures (probably intaglios in relief) nine feet high, and of excellent workmanship. The Temple being in the middle of the city is looked down upon from all sides as you walk around; and this comes from the city having been raised, whereas the temple itself has not been moved, but remains in its original place. Quite round the temple there goes a wall, adorned with sculptures. Within the inclosure is a grove of fair tall trees, planted around a large building in which is the effigy (of Bast). The form of that temple is square, each side being a stadium in length. In a line with the entrance is a road built of stone about three stadia long, leading eastwards through the public market. The road is about 400 ft broad, and is flanked by exceeding tall trees. It leads to the temple of Hermes."</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Bubastis was a center of worship for the feline goddess Bast (also called Bastet (emphasising the feminine ending t), or even Bubastis (after the city)), which the ancient Greeks identified with Artemis. The cat was the sacred and peculiar animal of Bast, who is represented with the head of a cat or a lioness and frequently accompanies the deity Ptah in monumental inscriptions. The tombs at Bubastis were accordingly the principal depository in Egypt of the mummies of the cat.</p><br>
<p>The most distinguished features of the city and nome of Bubastis were its oracle of Bast, the splendid temple of that goddess and the annual procession in honor of her. The oracle gained in popularity and importance after the influx of Greek settlers into the Delta, since the identification of Bast with Artemis attracted to her shrine both native Egyptians and foreigners.</p><br>
<p>The festival of Bubastis was the most joyous and gorgeous of all in the Egyptian calendar as described by Herodotus:</p><br>
<p>"Barges and river craft of every description, filled with men and women, floated leisurely down the Nile. The men played on pipes of lotus. the women on cymbals and tambourines, and such as had no instruments accompanied the music with clapping of hands and dances, and other joyous gestures. Thus did they while on the river: but when they came to a town on its banks, the barges were made fast, and the pilgrims disembarked, and the women sang, playfully mocked the women of that town and threw their clothes over their head. When they reached Bubastis, then held they a wondrously solemn feast: and more wine of the grape was drank in those days than in all the rest of the year. Such was the manner of this festival: and, it is said, that as many as seven hundred thousand pilgrims have been known to celebrate the Feast of Bast at the same time."</p><br>
<h2>Christian bishopric</h2><br>
<p>Extant documents mention the names of three Christian bishops of Bubastis of the 4th and 5th centuries:</p><br>
<p>Harpocration, one of the bishops ordained by Meletius of Lycopolis listed in 325</p><br>
<p>Hermon, a contemporary of Saint Athanasius, in about 362</p><br>
<p>Iulianus at the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>The tomb of the late New Kingdom vizier Iuty was discovered in December 1964 in the "Cemetery of the Nobles" of Bubastis by the Egyptian archaeologist Shafik Farid.</p><br>
<p>Since 2008, the German-Egyptian "Tell Basta Project" has been conducting excavations at Bubastis. Previously, in March 2004, a well preserved copy of the Decree of Canopus was discovered in the city.</p><br>
<p>Herðubreið  is a tuya in north-east Iceland. It is situated in the Highlands of Iceland at the east side of the Ódáðahraun desert and close to Askja volcano. The desert is a large lava field originating from eruptions of Trölladyngja and other shield volcanoes in the area. Herðubreið was formed beneath the icesheet that covered Iceland during the last glacial period.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Due to the mountain&#39;s steep and unstable sides, the first ascent was in 1908 despite centuries of knowledge of its existence.</p><br>
<p>Near the mountain lies an oasis called Herðubreiðarlindir with a campground and hiking trails. In former times, outcasts who had been excluded from Icelandic society because of crimes they had committed lived at the oasis. One such outlaw was Fjalla-Eyvindur, who lived there during the winter of 1774–1775.</p><br>
<p>The mountain range Kverkfjöll  is situated on the north-eastern border of the glacier Vatnajökull in Iceland. With their glacier Kverkjökull, they are to be found between the Vatnajökull and the Dyngjufjöll . The mountains are still active volcanoes. Especially around 1720, they were often erupting and causing glacier runs.</p><br>
<p>Under the mountains, there is a very large, very hot magma chamber which leads to the originating of glacier caves. Currently, they cannot be visited because of the risk of collapse. There is a warning sign at the "parking place" near the caves.</p><br>
<p>In a certain distance, there are the hot springs of Hveradalir.</p><br>
<p>The oasis Hvannalindir lies between the Kverkfjöll and Askja.</p><br>
<p>The Holuhraun lava field is approximately 10 km to the north-west of Kverkfjöll. The main volume of the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river flows from the Kverkfjöll area.</p><br>
<p>Öræfajökull is an ice-covered volcano in south-east Iceland, at the southern extremity of the Vatnajökull glacier and overlooking the Ring Road between Höfn and Vík. It is the largest active volcano in the country, and on the summit crater&#39;s north-western rim is Hvannadalshnúkur, the highest peak in Iceland at 2,110 m. Geographically, Öræfajökull is considered part of Vatnajökull, and the area covered by glacier is within the boundary of Vatnajökull National Park.</p><br>
<p>Öræfajökull has erupted twice in historical times. In 1362, the volcano erupted explosively, with huge amounts of tephra being ejected. The district of Litla-Hérað was destroyed by floods and tephra fall. More than 40 years passed before people again settled the area, which became known as Öræfi. The name literally means an area without harbour, but it took on a meaning of wasteland in Icelandic.</p><br>
<p>An eruption in August 1727-28 was smaller, though floods are known to have caused three fatalities.</p><br>
<p>Increased earthquake activity in the form small tremors ranging from a depth of 1.5 - 10 km beneath the summit crater, began in August of 2017 according to the Iceland Met Office.</p><br>
<p>The Aviation Colour Code was raised to yellow on 17 November 2017, after the appearance of an ice-cauldron inside the main crater and increased geothermal activitity under the glacier.</p><br>
<p>Mount Aniakchak is a 3,700-year-old volcanic caldera  located in the Aleutian Range of Alaska, United States. Although a stratovolcano by composition, the pre-existing mountain collapsed in a major eruption forming the caldera. The area around the volcano is the Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve, maintained by the National Park Service. In November 1967, Aniakchak Caldera was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Mount Aniakchak was previously a glacially eroded stratovolcano of andestic composition, with a pre-caldera volume totaling 75 km3. Andesitic material the volcano consisted of included basalt and dacite. The mountain collapsed, forming the present day caldera during a major eruption of VEI=6, which left evidence in ice cores dated to 1645 BC.</p><br>
<p>Since then, more than 20 eruptions have occurred from vents on the caldera floor. Vent Mountain has been the source of numerous eruptions of ash, bombs, and lava flows since the formation of the caldera. From 1500 BC to AD 1000 four lava domes were extruded on the caldera floor. Textural evidence indicates that these lava-dome eruptions occurred beneath Ancient Surprise Lake which was as deep as 100m. Ancient Surprise Lake drained catastrophically before about AD 1000. (Surprise Lake is now about 2.75 square kilometers (680 acres) in area and up to 19.5 m (64.0 ft) deep.) Prior to or immediately after this draining, explosive eruptions of andesitic magma produced a cluster of three tuff cones in the southeastern part of the caldera.</p><br>
<p>Around AD 1500, during one of the most violent events in recent history at Aniakchak, an estimated 0.75 to 1.0 km3 of material destroyed a preexisting edifice at Half Cone and inundated most of the caldera floor with pyroclastic flows, surges, and fallout many meters thick. During the final phase of this eruption, a lava flow filled the basin formed during the collapse of Half Cone.</p><br>
<p>Several more recent prehistoric eruptions occurred in the summit crater and along the south flank of Vent Mountain producing a field of blocky dacite lava flows against the south wall of the caldera. Minor eruptions immediately west and east of Vent Mountain produced a small scoria cone (Blocky Cone) and two maar craters (now water-filled) along the base of the southeast caldera wall.</p><br>
<p>European-descended geologists discovered the volcano in 1922.</p><br>
<p>The volcano&#39;s only eruption in modern recorded history occurred in 1931. The Jesuit "Glacier Priest", Father Bernard Hubbard, made record of it: "A small but impressive explosion pit was added to the pockmarked caldera floor that year. Many thousands of tons of ash lay strewn within the caldera and scattered up to 40 miles away over the small villages".</p><br>
<h2>Surprise Lake</h2><br>
<p>Surprise Lake within the caldera is the source of the Aniakchak River, a National Wild River.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ashby is a historic stockade fort located in Fort Ashby, West Virginia, USA. A military installation constructed during the French and Indian War, it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 1755, Colonel George Washington gave orders to build a stockade and fort on the East Side of Pattersons Creek. On Christmas Day, 1755, Captain Charles Lewis of Fredericksburg took command of the fort and a garrison of twenty-one men. He had orders from Colonel Washington to remain quiet as long as he could and to hold the fort as long as possible, but if necessary rather than surrender, he should burn it and try to escape to Fort Sellers on the east side of mouth of Patterson’s Creek. The only major battle at Fort Ashby occurred in 1756 when Lieutenant Robert Rutherford and his rangers were defeated by a band of French and Indians. During the siege, Colonel John Ashby, who was out of the fort, was attacked by Indians and made a remarkable escape to the fort. It is from this incident that the name was applied.</p><br>
<p>The Daughters of the American Revolution own Fort Ashby. The museum is open for special events and by appointment only.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Lynndie England</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento State Historic Park is located within the Old Sacramento Historic District of Sacramento, California. It is generally referred to as Old Sacramento, or Old Sac, and since the 1960s has been restored and developed as a significant tourist attraction. The Old Sacramento Historic District is a USA National Historic Landmark District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The city of Sacramento grew up in the mid-nineteenth century as a development from Sutter&#39;s Fort. However, the Fort was some way from the Sacramento River, which was the main means of transport to the coast of California, and what was to become the modern city developed along the waterfront.</p><br>
<p>Before Sacramentos extensive levee system was in place, the area flooded quite regularly. Because of this, the citys streets were raised a level. Most of the sidewalks and storefronts have been filled in, however many tunnels still remain throughout Old Sacramento and the downtown area.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, the area had fallen into disrepair and disrepute. A large effort was made to secure the area&#39;s future as an outdoor living history center similar to Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. Several historically significant buildings were moved or reconstructed. Those that were beyond repair were demolished.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Old Sacramento Historic District covers the area between the river frontage and Interstate 5, between I Street and the Capitol Mall. The State Historic Park comprises about a third of the total acreage of the district including half of the waterfront, a large grassy area and railroad features. Virtually all the buildings in this area date from the 19th century, the most notable from immediately after the disastrous fire of 1852, and show a reasonable approximation to their original appearance, though they have required varying degrees of reconstruction to restore to them to that state. However, few if any are in their original use, most of them now housing restaurants, gift shops, or other businesses catering to tourists.</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento State Historic Park attracts over 5 million visitors annually. Regular events include the Sacramento Music Festival (formerly known as the Sacramento Jazz Jubilee), New Years Eve events, the St. Patrick&#39;s Day Parade, the World Music and Dance Festival and Mardi Gras.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>While the architecture from this period is commonly attributed to Victorian gold miners, characteristics of West End, such as multi-storied buildings, large arched doorways, full-height balcony windows and the use of decorative wrought-iron balconies, were most ubiquitous in parts of Spain and the Spanish colonies. This influence may be attributed to the fact that the period of Spanish, then Mexican, rule in California enjoyed immigration from all over the Atlantic, including Spain and the Canary Islands, and the Spanish colonies.</p><br>
<p>The architecture of Old Town Sacramento (formerly known as West End) exhibits observable characteristics similar to that of San Juan (Puerto Rico), Havana (Cuba), Tampico (Mexico), Seville (Spain), Santa Cruz de Teneriffe (Canary Islands), Madrid (Spain).</p><br>
<p>While the architectural style of Old Sacramento, with its wrought iron balconies and evenly spaced full-height windows may remind one of Paris, it should be noted that Sacramento&#39;s oldest buildings predate the Haussmann Projects that renovated large areas of Paris in that style.</p><br>
<h2>Historic buildings</h2><br>
<p>Notable buildings include:</p><br>
<p>B. F. Hastings Building, the National Historic Landmarked western terminal of the Pony Express and the first location of the California Supreme Court; features a branch of the Wells Fargo History Museum</p><br>
<p>Big Four House, a National Historic Landmarked building constructed through the joint efforts of California&#39;s railroad pioneers: Collis Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Leland Stanford and Charles Crocker, known as The Big Four.</p><br>
<p>Lady Adams Building - oldest non-residential building in Old Sacramento and is California Historical Landmark No. 603.</p><br>
<p>Sacramento Engine Company No. 3, the oldest remaining firehouse in Sacramento</p><br>
<p>Old Sacramento Schoolhouse Museum</p><br>
<p>Eagle Theatre - only survived from 1849 to 1850 but has been reconstructed</p><br>
<p>Booth Buildings hens</p><br>
<p>Booths residence on Front Street, the first USA governors mansion in California.</p><br>
<p>Morse Building</p><br>
<p>The first two are also individually designated National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>Memorials</h2><br>
<p>The district contains many memorials to the founders of the city and of the California and transcontinental railroad and other transport systems, including the Theodore Judah monument and the Pony Express Statue.</p><br>
<h2>Current attractions</h2><br>
<p>Old Sacramento is the site of the California State Railroad Museum, the California State Military Museum, the, the Wells Fargo History Museum and the Old Sacramento Interpretive Center.</p><br>
<p>Other attractions available for visitors include rides in horse-drawn carriages, historic trains from the former Central Pacific Railroad passenger station, and cruises on historic riverboats. A historic sternwheel riverboat, the Delta King, is moored in the river and serves as a hotel, restaurant and theater.</p><br>
<p>The Sacramento Valley Rail Station is just a short walk away.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretive programs</h2><br>
<p>The manages several programs to highlight the history of the city, including historical reenactments by costumed docents, as well as tours of Old Sacramento&#39;s underground level. During October, there is also a special Halloween themed ghost tour.</p><br>
<p>Every Labor Day weekend, Old Sacramento holds its annual. During this time, the paved streets are covered with several tons of dirt and automobile traffic is barred from the area. Old Sac&#39;s regular corps of costumed docents is supplemented by extra volunteers and professional reenactors to recreate life in Sacramento as it was in the mid to late 1800s.</p><br>
<p>Spirit Lake is a lake north of Mount St. Helens in Washington State. The lake was a popular tourist destination for many years until the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Prior to 1980, there were six camps on the shore of Spirit Lake: a Boy Scout camp , a Girl Scout camp, two YMCA camps , Harmony Fall Lodge, and another for the general public. There were also a number of lodges catering to visitors, including Spirit Lake Lodge and Mt. St. Helens Lodge; the latter was inhabited by Harry R. Truman, who became one of the volcano&#39;s victims.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-1980 eruption</h2><br>
<p>Prior to 1980, Spirit Lake consisted of two arms that occupied what had been the valleys of the North Fork Toutle River and a tributary. About 4,000 years ago, these valleys were blocked by lahars and pyroclastic flow deposits from Mount St. Helens to form the pre-1980 Spirit Lake. The longest branch of Spirit Lake was about 2.1 mi long. A stable outlet channel flowed from the lake to the North Fork Toutle River across a natural dam composed of volcanic material. The level of Spirit Lake remained basically stable, at an altitude of about 3,198 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Pre-eruption weather data from the Spirit Lake Ranger Station indicates the area had the rare dry-summer variant of the subarctic climate (Köppen type Dsc), found in only in small areas across the world. Recent climate data for the area is not available to confirm whether the post-eruption site still has this rare climate type.</p><br>
<h2>Mount St. Helens eruption</h2><br>
<p>During the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Spirit Lake received the full impact of the lateral blast from the volcano. The blast and the debris avalanche associated with this eruption temporarily displaced much of the lake from its bed and forced lake waters as a wave as much as 850 ft above lake level on the mountain slopes along the north shoreline of the lake. The debris avalanche deposited about 350,000 acre-feet of pyrolized trees, other plant material, volcanic ash, and volcanic debris of various origins into Spirit Lake. The deposition of this volcanic material decreased the lake volume by approximately 46,000 acre-feet. Lahar and pyroclastic flow deposits from the eruption blocked its natural pre-eruption outlet to the North Fork Toutle River valley at its outlet, raising the surface elevation of the lake by between 197 ft and 206 ft. The surface area of the lake was increased from 1,300 acres to about 2,200 acres and its maximum depth decreased from 190 ft to 110 ft. The eruption tore thousands of trees from the surrounding hillsides and swept them into Spirit Lake. These thousands of shattered trees formed a floating log raft on the lake surface that covered about 40% of the lake’s surface after the eruption.</p><br>
<p>After the eruption, Spirit Lake contained highly toxic water with volcanic gases seeping up from the lake bed. A month after the eruption, the bacteria-carrying water was devoid of oxygen. Scientists predicted that the lake would not recover quickly, but the reemergence of phytoplankton starting in 1983 began to restore oxygen levels. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders recolonized the lake, and fish (reintroduced by fishermen) thrived.</p><br>
<h2>Current water level</h2><br>
<p>The water level of Spirit Lake is maintained at about 3,406 ft by draining water through a gravity-feed tunnel completed in 1985. The 8,465 ft-long tunnel was cut through Harrys Ridge to South Coldwater Creek, which flows to Coldwater Lake and into the North Fork of the Toutle River.</p><br>
